A. Hitler...3 İnglizce

  

WITH

(ZіgtaYeіІipd; ZA), Assault detachments, paramilitary formations of the Nazi Party, which began to be created in Germany in August 1921 on the basis of some units of the "Volunteer Corps" (under the name "Gymnastics and Sports Division"; renamed SA on November 4, 1921). They were a weapon of physical reprisals against opponents of the Nazi regime, and above all communists.The first detachments of the SA were commanded by Captain Pfeffer von Zalomon.From January 1931, the SA was headed by Captain Ernst Röhm,who built them on the model of the German army. Under his leadership, the General Staff of the SA, headquarters in various regions and a military school in Munich were created to train command personnel. Stormtroopers had their own brown uniform, for which they received the nickname "brown shirts". In 1931, the SA had about 100,000 members, in 1932, 400,000, and by the beginning of 1934, about 3 million members. After Hitler came to power, the SA assault squads were turned into auxiliary police, carried guards in concentration camps, and carried out some types of military and paramilitary training. Fearing the growing influence of the leaders of the SA, which became a serious obstacle to the establishment of a one-man dictatorship, on June 30, 1934, Hitler undertook a “bloody purge” of the top stormtroopers (see Night of the Long Knives).During these events, about 1000 people were killed (in the materials of the Nuremberg Trials , the figure is 1076), including about 200 people of the leadership of the SA. After the events of June 30, SS detachments organizationally separated from the assault detachments , previously subordinate to the SA command. By 1938 the SA's numbers had dwindled to 1.2 million, and their influence had declined markedly.

“SA leader book”

(8A-1_yebegisi), a collection of songs by assault troops, was published by Huber in 1933. It included poems by Dietrich Eckart, marching soldiers and patriotic songs of various authors, German folk songs and songs of assault troops (“Freedom to the streets!”, “The Fuhrer is calling” and etc.)

Saar

Saar region (Zaarіapsi), a land in western Germany, in the basins of the Saar and Moselle rivers, near the border with France.

In the Middle Ages, there was a county on the territory of the Saar, which was part of the “Holy Roman 

empire." From the 90s of the 18th century until 1814, France owned the Saarland. In 1815, most of the Saar went to Prussia, the smaller part to Bavaria. In 1871, the Saar became part of the German Empire. After World War I, under the terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919 , the Saarland was transferred to the administration of a commission of the League of Nations for 15 years. The coal mines located on the territory of the Saar were transferred to the ownership of France as compensation for the material damage it had suffered. In 1935, as a result of a plebiscite, the Saar passed to Germany, which bought the Saar coal mines from France (in accordance with the terms of the peace treaty). In 1945, France again occupied the area and ruled it until 1957, when, after a new plebiscite, the Saarland again became a German territory.

Salomon, Ernst von

(Biotop), (1902-1972), Prussian radical nationalist. Born in Kiel. After World War I, he joined the Volunteer Corps, in which in 1919 he took part in battles with the Red Guards in the Baltic countries and street battles with the communists in Germany. On June 24, 1922, Salomon participated in the assassination of Walter Rathenau, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Weimar Republic , in retaliation for signing the Versailles Treaty of 1919. He was sentenced to 5 years in prison, released in 1928. Author of a book of memoirs on the activities of the Volunteer Corps. After the Nazis came to power, Salomon did not take an active part in political life. Wrote scripts for the UFA film studio.

Swastika

See symbols of the Third Reich

SD

(Bіsеgіііеіізсііепзі), Nazi secret security service, intelligence agency of the SS. Formed in March 1934, originally to ensure the safety of Hitler and the Nazi leadership. On June 26, 1936, Himmler appointed Reinhard Heydrich as chief of the SD and ZIPO ( Zіsіzegіpeііzroіііgeі - security police). At first, the SD was a kind of auxiliary police under the jurisdiction of the Nazi Party, but over time it outgrew its purpose. “The SD,” said Himmler, “is designed to expose the enemies of the National Socialist idea, and it will carry out countermeasures through the state police forces.” Theoretically, the SD was under the jurisdiction of the Minister of the Interior, Wilhelm Frick,in practice, she was completely subordinate to Heydrich and Himmler. Like the GestapoDealing mainly with internal security issues of the Third Reich, the SD was nevertheless an independent service. Himmler explained the differences in competence between the SD and the security police, of which the Gestapo was the most important integrated part. Bodies of the SD are engaged in research and preparation of expertise and materials of a general nature - the plans of opposition parties and movements, their spheres of influence, systems of connections and contacts, the impact of individual illegal organizations, etc. The Gestapo, relying on the materials and developments of the SD, conducts an investigation into specific cases, makes arrests and sends the perpetrators to concentration camps. Since these services were directly subordinate to Himmler, this greatly expanded the scope and capabilities of the SD. She had at her disposal an extensive information network within the country and abroad, dossierand personal files on opponents of the Nazi regime. The SD network of agents was divided into five categories: Vegitaiepzieiiie (secret agents), Adepiep (agents), Zubgirpdeg (informants), Non-TerzIIeEeg (assistants of informants), IIpgiviepzieiiie (“unreliable”). Formally, the SD remained the information service of the NSDAP, subordinated to the party leadership and specifically to Rudolf Hess and the head of his headquarters, Martin Bormann. She had a huge file cabinet with compromising materials on many high-ranking officials both inside and outside the country (suffice it to say that during the Anschluss alone, over 67,000 “enemies of the state” were arrested based on SD materials). At the Nuremberg TrialsSD was recognized as a criminal organization.

"Sedentary War"

(BPgkgіed), the name of the period of passive military confrontation between France and Germany in September 1939 - May 1940, which entered into historiography. At a time when German troops had already occupied a significant part of Polish territory, France, contrary to the agreement concluded with Poland, did not provide it with any military support and only brought the garrison of the Maginot line to combat readiness . Such a policy of connivance in a short time led to the occupation of France itself.

"Strength in Joy"

(“KgaTT siigsiz Egeigie”; KsІR), a National Socialist organization within the German Labor Front,engaged in leisure, recreation and entertainment among workers. She led the “houses of German labor”, organized amateur theaters, gave cheap performances, cultivated mass sports, travel to foreign countries, developed tourism as a form of vacation in order to create the impression that the German people are the rightful masters of their country, and the state does everything to take care of him. The organization "Strength in Joy" received huge government subsidies (24 million marks in 1933-34, 17 million in 1935, 15 million in 1936). By 1935, she already owned two first-class ocean liners, specially built for her needs. The famous "people's car" "Volkswagen" was originally known as "KsІR-vagen" and was

Opening of the first mobile stage of the German Labor Front “Strength in Joy”. Berlin, 1940

dull to the average worker who made weekly contributions to purchase it.

Robert Ley , who led the activities of the Force in Joy , formulated the goals of the organization in this way;

“The worker sees that we are serious about the growth of his social position. He sees that not only to the so-called "educated class", with which we associate the idea of ​​a new Germany, but also to him, the German worker, we strive to show the world. In a few years the working man will get rid of the feeling of inferiority which he has inherited from the past."

Symbols of the Third Reich

National Socialism, like any other movement based on the principles of totalitarianism, attached great importance to symbolic language. A carefully designed symbolic series should, in my opinion,

1. Emblem of the NSDAP

2. Emblem of the German Labor Front

1. SA emblem

1. Badge of the leaders of the NSDAP

1. Sleeve insignia of the Reichsführerschule, cadets of the politi training school

of the NSDAP leaders

1. Sleeve rhombus of SD officers

1. Patch of SS officers

1. Sign of the 1st category in shooting for members of the SS

1. Badge of a member of the Hitler Youth

2. Qualification badge of a member of the Hitler Youth aged 10-14

3. Qualification badge of a member of the "Hitler Youth aged 15-18 years

4. The emblem of the Nazi Navy at the rally of the naval branch of the "Hitler Youth"

5. SS emblem

6. Badge of the SS swordsman

1. Banner of the German Workers' Party, the predecessor of the NSDAP

2. Banner of the NSDAP

3. Early SA flag

4-5. Adolf Hitler's personal standard and its use

1. Triumphal banner of the III battalion of the regiment "Fuhrer" of the SS troops

2. Mourning ribbon for the deceased commander of the SS detachment in Flanders

Hitler’s idea, to influence the consciousness of the masses and, bypassing logic and common sense, purely magically convince them of the fatefulness of National Socialism, evoke nostalgia for the heroic times, and turn the desire to return the heroism of the Nordic origins into support for the Nazi movement.

The leading symbol of National Socialism is the swastika. This is one of those basic symbols that were very widespread in the deepest antiquity. Already in the VI millennium BC. The swastika was in circulation in Iran. Later, it is found in the Far East, Central and Southeast Asia, Tibet and Japan. The swastika was also widely used in pre-Hellenic Greece. The Greek meander owes its origin to this symbol. This sign did not bypass the indigenous inhabitants of the American continent. In the Caucasus and Lithuania, the swastika was used as an ornamental decoration quite recently - until the middle of the 20th century. The meaning of this symbol has not been precisely established. According to Rene Guénon, the swastika is one of the varieties of the horizontal cross, a symbol of the center, the pole, the fundamental Principle. Segments that form curved ends, in this interpretation they symbolize the circle, the manifested world. The left and right rotation of the symbol in this context does not carry a semantic load, since the whole difference lies in which side to look at the rotation, from below or from above. However, the most common view of the swastika is that this symbol is seen as a solar sign. Geolytic CarlHaushofer believed that the swastika was a symbol of thunder, fire and fertility among the ancient Aryan magicians. It is characteristic that there is no historical evidence of the use of the swastika by the Germanic tribes. Hitler himself saw in the swastika, first of all, a symbol of the creative movement and the superiority of the Aryans over other peoples. However, it was not the National Socialists who brought this symbol into modern history. On the flag of the NSDAP, the swastika descended from the coat of arms of the Thule Society.

More organic and conclusive from the point of view of racial theory was the use of runes by the Nazis, which formed the basis of the writing of the ancient Germanic and Scandinavian peoples. However, like the Hebrew alphabet and the major arcana of the Tarot, the runic system also had magical and mantic meanings. Each rune not only fixed a certain sound, but also had its own name and magical function. From the "Elder Edda" it is known that the discovery of the miraculous properties of the runes belongs to Odin (Wotan), made by him during the rite of initiation to himself on the world tree Yggdrasil.

It was the magical function of the Futhark that attracted the Nazis. Hitler was afraid of the Kabbalists who operated with the Sefirot, and in contrast to the Jewish intrigues, he used the protective properties of the runes, which, like everything Aryan, should be more powerful than the witchcraft of the lower races.

Two runes (soulu, zig), symbolizing the solar disk in motion, as well as thunder and lightning, make up the sign of the SS. Runaf (teivaz), dedicated to Tyr, the god of war, was used, along with a single rune Ts, in the emblem of the Hitler Youth in order to instill militancy in young people. In rituals related to agriculture, the rune y (al-giz), a rune of protection with the ideographic meaning of roots and branches, was often used.

The symbolic row of the Third Reich also includes an eagle and oak (oak leaves), appealing to the imperial beginning. These symbols of statehood have been well known since the time of Imperial Rome and are often found as attributes of absolute power.

The “dead head”, which served as an emblem in the SS division of the same name, was borrowed from the Rosicrucians, but unlike the rumor that attributed the meaning of death and destruction to this symbol, it originally had a completely different meaning associated with the victory of spirit over matter.

Color in Nazi symbols was represented by the triad red-white-black. “As National Socialists we see our program in our flag. The red field symbolizes the social idea of ​​the movement, the white field symbolizes the nationalist idea. The swastika is the struggle for the victory of the Aryan movement, and at the same time, the swastika symbolizes creativity,” Hitler said to Rauschning.

Although the presence of the swastika in the National Socialist movement is not the merit of Hitler, the development of the Nazi banner is mainly due to him. Hitler also owns the idea of ​​a personal standard, which was intended to mark the presence of the leader. It is possible that the Fuhrer used his personal standard as a talisman.

Scorsese, Otto

(Zkoggepu), (1908-1975), the most famous commander of the sabotage special forces of Nazi Germany. Born June 12, 1908 in Vienna in the family of an engineer. While studying at the University of Vienna, he joined one of the units of the "Volunteer Corps", and then the "Heymwehr". In 1930 he joined the NSDAP. He worked as a manager of a construction company. In 1939 he was enrolled in Hitler's personal guard regiment. As part of the SS troops, he took part in the hostilities in France and the USSR. In April 1943, Skorzeny, with the rank of SS Standartenführer, was invited by Walter Schellenberg to work in the Ausland-SD Foreign Intelligence Directorate (Department VI) of the Imperial Security Main Directorate (RSHA).His duties included the management of undercover work and sabotage activities in foreign countries.

On July 29, 1943, Skorzeny was instructed to release Benito Mussolini, captured by Italian partisans. On September 13, 1943, a specially trained detachment under the command of Skorzeny landed on light planes in the Abruzzi Apennines and in a matter of minutes freed the former Italian dictator. He was taken first to Rome and then to Vienna. A brilliant operation brought Skorzeny the glory of a national hero.

Skorzeny was among the officers who carried out the liquidation of the consequences of the July 1944 conspiracy. In October 1944, he led a sabotage detachment that kidnapped the Hungarian regent Horthy, who was about to surrender to the advancing Soviet troops. There is evidence that Skorzeny was assigned during the Ardennes offensive operation in December 1944 to capture General Eisenhower. Hitler personally put Skorzeny in charge of Operation Vulture, during which about 2,000 English-speaking fighters dressed in American uniforms with American tanks and jeeps were sent to the rear of the advancing American troops from 

sabotage mission. However, this operation did not achieve its main goals: many of Skorzeny's subordinates were captured and shot. In January 1945, Skorzeny carried out a similar operation on the Eastern Front.

Mussolini and his savior Otto Skorzeny after the successful kidnapping of the leader of the Italian fascists from partisan captivity

Skorzeny was arrested by American troops on May 15, 1945 in Steiermark. In September 1947, he appeared before the American military tribunal at Dachau, but was acquitted. For some time he worked in the archives of the American army. Subsequently, he was arrested by the new German authorities, but managed to escape from the camp in Darmstadt in July 1948. In 1949, Skorzeny, under the name of Robert Steinbacher, created an underground organization “Oie 8rippe” (“Spider”), which helped more than 500 former members of the SS to flee abroad. Later, having found patronage from the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco, Skorzeny settled in Spain, where he did business, published a book of memoirs in 1951. He died in Madrid on July 5, 1975.

Investigation and Arbitration Committee

(ІІnіegzisІііpdz- ipsi Bіііsbііpdz- Aizzssybse; OSNEA), a party court established on the initiative of Hitler in 1926, which dealt mainly with cases of violation of party discipline, damage to the party and disrespectful attitude towards the Fuhrer. The punishment was a party penalty or reprimand, in more serious cases - expulsion from the ranks of the NSDAP, and only after 1937 could the guilty person be sent to a concentration camp.

"Reich Labor Service"

(НеисІиБагЬеііБсІіепзІ :). See Imperial Labor Service.

Sobibor

Founded in April 1942 on the territory of the Lubelskie Voivodship “ death camp”, one of the four largest extermination camps in occupied Poland. Its commandant (as well as other Polish camps) was SS Brigadeführer Odilo Globocnik. Hundreds of thousands (according to some sources, about 250 thousand) Jews from many European countries were killed in the gas chambers of Sobibor. On October 14, 1943, an uprising of prisoners broke out in the camp, which was suppressed in the most cruel way. The camp was evacuated at the end of 1943.

Reich Defense Council

Created in 1935, a government agency that dealt with the rearmament and preparation of Germany for war. It included high-ranking army officers and some leaders of the Nazi Party. He met irregularly.

Soviet-German non-aggression pact

See Non-Aggression Pact.

"The estate of the breadwinners of the Reich"

A single organization created in September 1933 as a result of the unification of all national associations, peasant unions and agricultural cooperatives in Germany. Its functions included market management in the field of sales regulation, setting trade prices and allowances, planning and production. In order to create conditions for economic self-sufficiency (see Autarky), primarily in food, on September 29, 1933, the Law on Land Inheritance was issued in order to “preserve the peasantry as a source of blood for the German people.” According to this law, peasant farms were not subject to division - the estate was inherited by the eldest son.

By the end of 1939, the "Reich Supporters' Estate" had 15 million permanent members—large, medium, and small landowners, owners of rural shops, cattle traders, and fishermen. At the head of this organization was the Reichsbauernführer (leader of the peasants of the Reich), in some districts - Landesbauernführer, in the field - Ortsbauernführer.

wrestling union

(KatrThipsI), a Bavarian nationalist organization founded by Ernst Röhm in September 1923 in Nuremberg. Among its leaders was General Erich Ludendorff. The Union of Struggle called for the resignation of the republican government and a boycott of the terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919. Subsequently, most of its members became part of the SA assault detachments.

Union of Struggle for the German

culture

An organization founded in 1929 by Alfred Rosenberg , whose task was to spread Nazi influence on German culture with the aim of ousting "Jewish dominance in the cultural life of Germany."

On July 18, 1937, speaking at the opening of the House of German Art in Munich, Hitler outlined his own vision of the tasks of the Union for the Struggle for German Culture:

“For many years, while developing plans for the creation of a new Reich, I thought a lot about the tasks that await us in the cultural purification of the life of the nation. In addition to political and economic reforms, a cultural revival is needed. I am convinced that the day has come for a people who have been oppressed by the whole world when they must realize the greatness of their own duty and assert their own values ​​in the face of their oppressors. And there is no need to prove that the right of a nation to its own life is no less important than the immortal achievements of culture.

Union of German Girls

(VipsІ geiiiasііeg MagіeІ), a mass women's organization as part of the Hitler Youth. It was under the control of Reichsugendführer Baldur von Chirac. The Union was divided into two age groups: the younger (from 10 to 14 years old), the so-called. “Jungmedel”, and the older one (from 15 to 21 years old). The lowest cell of the union was the “medelshaft”, 2-4 of which made up the “medelshar”. 2-4 “medelsharen” made up a “group”, 5 of which were combined into a “ring”. 5-6 “rings” formed “untergau”, of which there were 684. Then followed the “obergau”. The Union consisted of 125,000 leaders trained in 35 special schools.

All the girls of the union were constantly told that the most important task of their preparation was to be "bearers of the National Socialist worldview." The girls were engaged in physical training, mastered the basics of military and civil service, and prepared for motherhood. During the annual parades, they wore blue navy skirts, white blouses, and brown kurtas.

ki. When the members of the union turned 17 years old, they could be accepted into an organization called "Faith and Beauty" (Oiaube ipsi Zsbpbeiii), where they were prepared for future marriage and housekeeping. By 1936 the union had over 2 million members.

Hitler surrounded by girls from the BDM

statute of limitations

A topic that became the subject of legal battles after the defeat of the Third Reich. In post-war Germany, there were calls to stop prosecutions for crimes committed during the Nazi years and to ignore the rules of Roman law, based on the principle - ietriz non ossigii gedi (the passage of time does not affect the prosecution of a crime) and meaning that there is no statute of limitations for crimes such as murder. The controversy reached its climax when about 65,000 Nazi criminals had already been convicted, but more than 10,000 had not yet been charged. Members of Germany's right-wing National Democratic Party called in the Bundestag to stop prosecutions on the grounds that the most important Nazi criminals had already been convicted and that the rest should be granted amnesty due to the statute of limitations. As a result, on September 21, 1949, after a lengthy debate, the Bundestag determined the statute of limitations at 20 years. This term expired on September 21, 1969.

SS

(ZsGііYakhzІaOei), the elite security units of the Nazi Party, created by order of Hitler as a stronghold of the Nazi totalitarian police state, the so-called. "Black Order".

In April 1925, Hitler instructed one of the former SA fighters , Julius Schreck, to form a new personal guard. On September 21, 1925, Schreck issued a circular ordering all local NSDAP organizations to create SS units consisting of 10 locally and 20 in Berlin. The small detachments created were at first part of the SA and reported (until 1934) to the SA chief of staff, Franz Pfeffer von Salomon. In November 1926, the post of Reichsführer SS was introduced and the first to be occupied was the commander of the “Shock Detachment Adolf Hitler” Josef Berchtold. In an effort to raise and strengthen the prestige of the SS among the members of the NSDAP, Hitler at the party congress in Weimar (1926) solemnly handed over to them the so-called. "banner of blood"

In the spring of 1927, Erhard Heiden became Reichsführer SS, but under him the development of the SS was rather sluggish, since the influence of the governing bodies of the SA was still strong. On January 6, 1929, Heinrich Himmler was placed at the head of the SS. From that moment on, the SS personnel under the leadership of Himmler began to increase rapidly: in January 1929 it numbered 280 people, in December 1930 - 2727, in December 1931 -14964, in June 1932 - 30 thousand, in May 1933 - 52 thousand. The composition of the SS was accompanied by the expansion of the department, code-named "ІС" - the security service (SD), organized by Reinhard Heydrich.

The growth of the SS cadre caused concern among the leaders of the SA. This issue was resolved by Hitler: "No SA commander has the right to give orders to the SS." A new organizational structure of the SS was introduced: the lowest cell was a branch (shar) - 8 people under the command of a Scharführer. Three squads made up a detachment (troupe), three detachments - an assault (about 70-120 people) led by an obersturmführer. Three “storms” made up a “sturmbann” (250-600 men) led by a shurmbannführer. Three or four “Sturmbanne” formed a “Standarde” (1000-3000 people) led by a Standartenführer. Several “standards” made up an “abshnite”, close in number to a brigade. Several “abshnites” formed a “group” (division) led by a gruppenführer.

In accordance with Hitler's order of November 7, 1930, the SS were to become an instrument for strengthening the unity of the NSDAP, subordinating to the will and orders of the Fuhrer of all party links and instances. However, the split between the nationalist wing and the supporters of the socialist part of the party program led by Ernst Röhm, Gregor Strasser and his brother Otto Strasser grew rapidly. On August 30, 1930, it came to skirmishes between the SA and SS militants. In mid-March 1933, having received information from the head of the SS about the prevention of an assassination attempt on Hitler, the Führer ordered Himmler to form a personal security unit for himself, later called the “SS Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler”.SS Gruppenfuehrer Josef (Sepp) Dietrich was put at the head of this detachment, numbering about 120 people. In addition, Himmler formed new units of the SS in different provinces of the Third Reich under the name Sonderkommando SS, whose task was to protect the highest representatives of the Nazi authorities in the field and fight opponents of the regime.

The SS units were the main active force in the destruction of the leaders of the SA and supporters of Ernst Röhm during the bloody events of the “Night of the Long Knives”, after which the SS completely became an independent link of the NSDAP.

On July 20, 1934, Hitler issued the following order: “Given the outstanding services of the SS forces, especially during the events of June 30, 1934, I raise the SS to the rank of an independent organization within the framework of the NSDAP. Reichsführer SS as well as SA Chief of Staff [Victor Lutze]will henceforth be directly subordinate to the SA High Command.” And Hitler himself became the Supreme Commander of the SA. The order of July 20, 1934 put Himmler on an equal footing with Viktor Lutze, and the SS services received complete independence from the SA organizations, of which they were still a division. Himmler was now subordinate only to Hitler. Himmler could now create and equip SS troops. The only armed unit that the SS had until then was the Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler, which carried out Hitler's personal protection. After June 30, the widespread formation and development of marching and special units began, which soon turned into Hitler's personal army, as well as the creation of the Dead Head regiments, whose bloody arbitrariness in concentration camps lasted eleven years.

Replenishment of the ranks of the SS went through special schools that appeared in 1933, where they selected "high-grade" racially boys and youths from the "Hitler Youth" at the age of 10 to 18 years. By 1943 there were 33 such schools for boys and four for girls in Germany. They functioned on the principle of a boarding school, the students received uniforms, they were brought up “physically, spiritually and morally in the spirit of National Socialism, serving the people and the national community.” In addition to introducing the Nazi worldview, the unlearners were required to master military knowledge, and each had to receive a sports badge, certifying good sports training.

On the anniversary of the “Beer Putsch” of 1923 (November 9), 18-year-old SS candidate members received their first uniforms (since 1935, the wearing of a dagger was introduced as part of the uniform). Then, on January 30, on the anniversary of Hitler’s coming to power, they were given temporary certificates SS On April 20, Hitler's birthday, candidates received a permanent SS certificate and took the oath:

“I swear to you, Adolf Hitler, Fuhrer and Chancellor of the German Reich, to be loyal and courageous. I swear to you and the chiefs appointed by you to obey implicitly until my death. God help me!”

The oath ceremony took place at midnight by the light of thousands of burning torches. By the end of 1938, the number of SS reached 238,159 people.

Between the ages of 25 and 30, an SS member had to start a family, and the newlyweds were required to undergo a medical examination by an SS health officer and submit documents certifying their “racial purity”. The church marriage was replaced by an elaborate ceremony with the participation of the commander of the local organization of the SS. Rite baptized

The birth of a newborn in an SS family was a naming ceremony in front of a portrait of Adolf Hitler, his book “Mein Kampf” and a swastika sign.

Representing the SS as a successor to the ancient Germanic cults and traditions of medieval chivalry, Himmler tried to give them the appropriate order attributes. As props served as silver rings with the image of a skull, awarded to officers after three years of service in command positions. The most distinguished received a sword of honor from the hands of the Reichsfuehrer SS. The leaders of the SS turned to the traditions of the order of the crusaders and the principles of "faith and obedience" proclaimed by them. Every year, young SS cadres came to take the oath in Brunswick to the tomb of the Duke of Mecklenburg, where cadets of military schools were promoted to officers. In the vicinity of the city of Paderborn, there were the ruins of the medieval Wewelsburg castle, which became the residence of the SS leadership, where the SS elite periodically gathered in the large hall and held meditation sessions.

"Steel Pact"

Signed May 22, 1939 in Berlin "Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy." The preamble to the pact contained allegations that both parties were allegedly united by the desire to cooperate “in the field of ensuring peace in Europe”, that they would continue to be determined to jointly “advocate for the preservation of their living space and the maintenance of peace”, to fight for “preservation of the foundations European culture".

The main content of the pact was set out in seven articles. In Article 1, both contracting parties undertook to "coordinate their positions on all issues relating to their joint interests or common situation in Europe." In Article 2, the parties declared their readiness to “render full political and diplomatic support” to each other “if the security or other vital interests of one of the contracting parties are threatened from outside.” Article 3 already said that if one of the parties “finds itself in a state of war with one or more states, then the other contracting party will immediately act on its side as an ally and will support it with all its armed forces on land, on sea ​​and in the air. "The 4th article indicated that "the governments of both contracting parties will further deepen their military and military-economic cooperation", "will carry out ongoing consultations on other issues necessary for the practical implementation of the provisions of this pact." To facilitate these tasks, it was planned to create German and Italian standing commissions, which were to be subordinate to the foreign ministers of the two countries. In Article 5, Germany and Italy pledged "in the event of joint warfare, to conclude an armistice or peace only if there is full agreement with each other on this issue." In Article 6, the contracting parties declared their readiness to develop and maintain friendly relations with those countries with which they share common interests. In the last, 7th article, it was said,

In a secret additional protocol to the Steel Pact, the Foreign Ministers of both countries, Ribbentrop and Ciano, in accordance with Article 4 of the pact, undertook "to agree as soon as possible on the structure, location and methods of work of the military and military-economic commissions subordinate to them", and also establish "appropriate cooperation in the field of press, information and propaganda, consistent with the spirit and objectives of the pact."

A big performance given by the National Socialist Dictator for the Fascist Duce in Berlin at the Olympic Stadium, September 29, 1937. In the light of the searchlights, the emblems of both dictators are the swastika and mentor beams. Between them is Mussolini speaking to the masses. The state visit of the Italian dictator became a triumphal celebration of the German-Italian brotherhood. Axis Berlin - Rome was finally established

"Steel helmet"

(Ziavyliet), one of the numerous nationalist paramilitary organizations in the Weimar Republic, created on December 23, 1918 in Magdeburg. It was led by Major Franz Seldte. The main purpose of this organization was to counteract the rise of the revolutionary movement in Germany. The personnel were recruited mainly from war veterans, ardent nationalists and monarchists who called for the restoration of the monarchy.

The "Steel Helmet" played a prominent role in the political arena of Germany in the 1920s and early 1930s. In the presidential election of March 13, 1932, one of the founders of this organization, Theodor Duisterberg, received 2.5 million votes as an independent nationalist candidate, but found it necessary to withdraw his candidacy in favor of Hitler.

Having come to power, Hitler, who did not want to tolerate any opposition nearby, by decree of December 1, 1933, included all members of the Steel Helmet under the age of 35 in the SA. Elderly members of the organization became the SA reserve. This decision of the Fuhrer sowed enmity between the members of the "Steel Helmet" and the stormtroopers, which manifested itself in street skirmishes. February 17, 1934 "Steel Helmet" received a new name - the National Socialist League of former military personnel. Franz Seldte was invited to the government as Minister of Labor. In 1951, the "Steel Helmet" was revived in a more modest form in Cologne, but did not have any noticeable impact on political life.

Sudeten German Party

(Zeeeeep ceiissipe Pariei; 8eP), a pro-Nazi organization of the Sudeten Germans in Czechoslovakia, which, under the slogan of fighting for the right of the Sudeten Germans to sovereignty, sought the annexation of the Sudetenland to Germany. Created in 1933 by former gymnastics teacher Konrad Henlein. With serious financial support from the German Foreign Ministry, the SDP quickly gained momentum and by 1935 covered almost the entire German population of the Sudetenland. Hitler viewed the SDP as a base for the expansion of opposition forces in Czechoslovakia and a stepping stone for the annexation of the Sudetenland. See also Munich Agreement 1938.

Sudetenland

The area of ​​Bohemia bordering Germany, which, after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, went to Czechoslovakia under the terms of the Saint-Germain Treaty of 1919. By the beginning of World War II, about 3 million Germans lived here. The region was rich in minerals, which made it possible to consider it as a source of raw materials for the production of equipment and weapons. In addition, for Hitler, it was a convenient springboard in the center of Europe for the start of hostilities. Pro-Nazi Su-

Hitler looks down on Prague from the height of Hradcany after the capture of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939

the German Children's Party, which became the spokesman for the interests of the German-speaking population of the region, waged a vigorous campaign against the Czechoslovak government, demanding autonomy. Under the terms of the Munich Agreement of 1938, the Sudetenland was ceded to Germany. In 1945, the German population of this region was evicted, and settlers from other regions of Czechoslovakia arrived in their place.

"Twilight of the Gods"

(“Soieegsialtegipd”), under this name the events of the last days of Hitler and his inner circle in the Führerbunker at the end of April 1945 entered the German historiography . Hitler, which ends with an enchanting scene of general collapse.

On April 1, 1945, when Soviet artillery shelled the capital of the Third Reich day and night, Hitler moved his headquarters to a bunker under the old building of the Reich Chancellery. Huge clouds of smoke hung in the sky above the doomed Berlin. The roar of explosions penetrated through the many meters thick concrete bunker, which contained the remains of the Nazi encirclement.

There is no point in continuing further.” He offered his entourage to flee: “Go away, get out! Head to the south of Germany. I will stay here. It doesn't matter now." WilhelmKeitel: We will not leave you. I will be ashamed to look into the eyes of my wife and children if I leave you.” MartinBormann: “For the first time I will dare to disobey you. I will not leave". General Alfred Jodl: “I will not stay in this mouse hole. We are soldiers. Give us an army group and tell us to fight where else possible." Hitler: "Do what you want - I don't care now."

On April 25, Hermann Goering sent a telegram to Hitler:

"My Fuehrer! In view of your decision to remain in Fortress Berlin, do you agree that I immediately take over the overall leadership of the Reich, with full freedom of action at home and abroad, as your deputy, in accordance with your decree of June 29, 1941? If there is no reply by 10 p.m. today, I will take it for granted that you have lost your freedom of action and that the conditions for your decree to come into force have arisen. I will also act in the best interests of our country and our people. You know what feelings I have for you at this most important hour of my life. I don't have enough words to express myself. God bless you and good luck no matter what. Your faithful Hermann Goering.”

Hitler regarded this as a betrayal. This was followed by another blow: Hitler learned that Himmler was trying to conduct separate negotiations with the Allies behind his back. He was then informed that enemy aircraft had raided the Obersalzberg and wiped out his Berghof estate. Almost at the same time, Hermann Fegelein, the husband of Eva Braun's sister, tried to escape from the bunker, but was arrested and, on Hitler's orders, shot in the courtyard of the Reich Chancellery.

On April 29, 1945, the marriage of Hitler and Eva Braun took place in the bunker. The Fuhrer then dictated his last will and political testament (see Hitler's political testament, Hitler's last will). The next day, the Fuhrer shot himself by firing a bullet into his mouth. Following him, Eva Braun committed suicide. In accordance with his orders, their bodies were doused with gasoline and burned. After putting to death their six daughters, Joseph Goebbels and his wife also committed suicide.

Such was the end of the leaders of the millennial Reich.

T-4

Code name for the Nazi National Coordinating Council for Therapeutic and Medical Institutions. This organization coordinated the euthanasia program - the extermination of Jews in Europe. She was in Berlin at Tiergartenstraße 4. Hitler gave full power for the implementation of the program to Philipp Buchler, head of the NSDAP office, and his personal doctor, Karl Brandt. In only 2 years, from 1939 to 1941, more than 50 thousand prisoners were killed in gas chambers or by lethal injections.

Thadden, Adolf von

(Thabsien), a political figure of a conservative-nationalist persuasion in post-war Germany. Born July 7, 1921 in Triglaf, Pomerania, in an old Junker family. Half-brother of Elisabeth von Thadden, who was executed on charges of defeatism and attempted treason during the Third Reich. After graduating from the gymnasium in Greifenberg, he served as 1st lieutenant during the 2nd World War, was wounded several times. In 1948-60 he was a member of the Göttingen city council, in 1949-53 he was a member of the German Bundestag. In 1961 he became chairman of the German Right Party in Lower Saxony. In 1964 he joined the National Democratic Party

Germany (NAP), and in 1967 became its chairman.

A man of sharp wit and demagogic talent, known among his friends as “Bubi” (“Baby”), Thadden tried to create an atmosphere of respectable conservative nationalism in post-war Germany. Enemies accused him of neo-Nazism; these accusations he angrily denied. Thadden gained widespread attention by defending Germany against a post-war guilt complex:

“There is no German guilt, just as there is no guilt among other peoples. There is no such German injustice that others would not commit to one degree or another. Therefore, there cannot be an admission of guilt only by the Germans, without an admission of guilt by the rest of the world ... Constant digging around atrocities in concentration camps borders on painful self-flagellation, as a result of which the moral recovery of the foundations of German society may not take place.

Tadden, Elizabeth von

(Thacisiep), (1890-1944), participant in the anti-Hitler movement. Born July 29, 1890 in Morungen, Vost.

Prussia (now Morong, Poland), in the family of the chairman of the city council. In 1927 she founded a Protestant boarding house in Schloss Wieblingen, not far from Heidelberg. She took part in the activities of the Red Cross, joined the resistance movement. September 10, 1943 on a denunciation was arrested by the Gestapo. The People's Tribunal sentenced her to death and on September 8, 1944, Thadden was executed; her last words were: “Put an end, Lord, to all our suffering!”.

"Secret office"

(Sebeiteg KalipeiisgaI), established by Hitler on February 4, 1938, a special cabinet of ministers, which was entrusted with foreign policy issues. After dismissing Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath, Hitler appointed Joachim von Ribbentrop in his place, who was more accommodating towards an aggressive foreign policy. Von Neurath was entrusted with control over the activities of the "Secret Cabinet". It consisted of the commanders of the three branches of the armed forces, as well as the chief of staff of the Wehrmacht Supreme High Command, General Wilhelm Keitel. Nazi propaganda tried to present the "Secret Cabinet" as Hitler's "superior cabinet". In fact, it never functioned at all. At the Nuremberg Trials, Göring completely denied the very existence (“even for a moment”) of any such government.

"Typhoon"

(“Tayip”), the code name for the German offensive on Moscow on September 19, 1941. By ordering General von Bock, commander of Army Group Center, to attack the army group of Marshal Timoshenko, Hitler hoped to defeat the Soviet troops and capture Moscow before winter. These plans were not destined to come true as a result of the stubborn defense of the Soviet troops and their swift counteroffensive in December 1941.

Tannenberg

(Tappenjegd), Hitler's headquarters, located west of Freidenstadt, in the Black Forest, in the period June 28 to July 6, 1940. It got its name in honor of the battle of Tannenberg on August 26-29, 1914, when the Russian army under the command of General Samsonov fell into a trap set up by the Germans. On July 6, 1940, Hitler left Tannenberg and returned to Berlin, where he was given a solemn reception.

Tannenberg

(“Tappenjerk”), the code name for the joint provocative operation of the SD and the Gestapo on the eve of the outbreak of World War II in Poland. The order to carry it out was signed on August 25, 1939 by Reinhard Heydrich.The operation plan provided for the fabrication of convincing “evidence of Polish crimes,” that is, a series of explosions and arsons on the Polish-German border. Himmler personally signed documents that included 63 German objects on the border of Poland and East Prussia, 32 objects on the territory of Danzig, 89 objects in the Poznań Voivodeship and 39 objects in Upper Silesia These lists included 11 buildings that housed various German organizations, 6 buildings of printing houses and publishing houses, 3 schools, mills, sawmills owned by the Germans, etc.

At a meeting held as early as July 5, 1939, four operational groups (see Einsatzgruppen) of 500 people each were created to carry out this operation.

After the outbreak of hostilities, in accordance with the plan of Operation Tannenberg, the operational groups operating in the territories captured by the Wehrmacht units carried out “retaliatory” punitive measures, eliminating those Poles and groups that were able to organize resistance.

Tannenberg Union

(Tappenjerk Vipsi), a reactionary nationalist organization of veterans of the 1st World War, which operated in the 1920s. in Germany. The Tannenberg Union was headed by General Ehr their Ludendorff. The union got its name in honor of the battle of Tannenberg on August 26-29, 1914, where the Russian army of General Samsonov fell into a trap set by the Germans. More than 90 thousand Russian soldiers were then captured, and General Samsonov shot himself. The German 8th Army that defeated the enemy was commanded by General Paul von Hindenburg, and Ludendorff was his chief of staff.

The program of the Tannenberg Union reflected Ludendorff's personal views—extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, anti-communism, and rejection of Freemasonry. The words of Ludendorff became its motto: “Power is above the state” (“сііе йегзіааіІісKep Macіе”). Among the members of the Tannenberg League there were many officers who fought alongside Ludendorff during World War I. The union has never enjoyed wide popularity among the masses. Most of its members accepted National Socialism and supported Hitler.

Tatkrais

(Taikgeiz - "Action Group"), one of the many conservative populist organizations in Germany, which operated during the period of the Weimar Republic.She preached extreme nationalism and racism, attacked democratic forms of government, opposed the equality of classes and religions, against “talkative and irresponsible parliaments, corrupt and incapable of action”, against everything that was associated with the Weimar Republic. Rejecting any traditional forms of government, arguments and negotiations as outdated, the members of the Tatkreis welcomed political chaos as inevitable and therefore the only way to "rebirth and freedom" in the German fatherland. Ignoring the plight of the masses, the members of the Tatkreis called on the intellectual elite of the country to show their talent They intended to single-handedly lead the coming national revolution They hoped to unite the interests of the privileged class with those of the(middle class), which accounted for 45% of the German population. The members of the Tatkreis extolled the youth as the model upon which the future German society would be built. Adherents of Tatkreis called for the destruction of capitalism and the construction instead of it of a planned national economy, complete self-sufficiency, which was supposed to put an end to Germany's obligations to other countries.

The official print organ of Tatkrays was the newspaper “Oie Tai'' (“Action”). Its spiritual leader was Hans Zehrer, who became editor-in-chief in 1928 and increased the newspaper's circulation from 1,000 to 30,000 copies, making it the most popular folk publication in Germany.

Tatkreis and especially her far-right wing had a strong influence on Hitler, who considered his own movement, National Socialism, to be essentially populist. Most of the members of the Tatkreis initially had no sympathy for the rootless Austrian, and many were convinced that the split of the Nazi party in 1932 was only the beginning of its end. Hitler's rise to power in 1933 disillusioned many members of the Tatkreis, and those who opposed Nazism were killed. Outraged by the brutality of the Nazis, Zehrer resigned as editor of O/e Tai.Those who were pleased that Hitler eventually accepted some of their programmatic demands recognized the Nazi regime and became members of the Nazi Party. The Fuehrer, however, did not seek to have independent-minded people among the ultra-right elite more than among his ultra-left opponents. Tatkrays gradually ceased to exist, dissolving into the Nazi movement.

Tauber, Richard

(Tauber), (1891-1948), Austrian opera singer (tenor). Born May 16, 1891 in Linz. He performed in Graz and Linz. He gained wide popularity by performing parts in Lehar's operettas and Mozart's operas. Also known as a composer, he wrote music for films and operettas. With the coming of the Nazis to power, he was forced to emigrate. He died in London on January 8, 1948.

Theater in the Third Reich

During the period of the Weimar Republic (1919-1933), the German theater gained a high reputation for its superior craftsmanship. German playwrights, directors and actors, thanks to their creative energy, made a huge contribution to the development of various genres of theatrical art, from tragedy to comedy. All types of theatrical art, from classical to radical expressionism, had an unprecedented impact on the audience. In many theaters in Germany, plays about the complex and contradictory fate of man, about the bright side of human nature, were successfully performed. The whole world laughed at the smashing satirical play by Karl Zuckmayer "Captain Köpenick", first staged in Germany in 1931, and then translated into many languages ​​and staged in many countries.

The establishment of the Nazi regime in 1933 caused a sharp decline in the German theater. Under the cultural leadership of the head of the Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda, Goebbels, the theater, after cinematography, radio broadcasting, fine arts, literature and the press, became the object of the policy of the Gleichschaltun. The first step of the Nazi authorities was the expulsion from the theatrical environment of all Jews - directors, directors and actors, many of whom worked successfully both in the cinema and in the theater (see Cinematography in the Third Reich). The famous German director MaxReinhardt, who directed the Deutsches Theater in Berlin, was forced to leave Germany. Bavarian neo-realist playwright Bertol'd Brecht,whose epic dramas were extremely popular in the Weimar Republic, left his homeland and went to Denmark. Later, in the United States, Brecht wrote several anti-Nazi plays, including The Career of Arturo Uri, which exposed the propaganda tactics used by Hitler to achieve political power, and The Private Life of Master Reis, in which the author predicted an imminent and imminent collapse Nazi regime. Another émigré playwright, Ernst Toller,wrote the play "Pastor Hall", a drama about a German priest who defied Hitler's Brownshirts (see SA). The play "Professor Mamlon" by Friedrich Wolf, staged in New York in 1937, tells the story of a Jewish doctor who, slandered, bullied and deprived of his job, committed suicide. These plays, created outside the Third Reich by eminent émigré playwrights, portrayed a murderous picture of the Nazi terror and the loss of the moral core of the artists who remained in Germany and failed to resist the Nazi regime.

The authorities of the Third Reich tried by all means to maintain the interest of the public, accustomed to the high quality of theatrical productions. Goebbels appointed Hans Jost, a playwright of average ability, head of the Imperial Theater Chamber, which was under the control of the Propaganda Ministry. Jost's drama "Schlageter", staged in 1933, was written in honor of Albert Leo Schlageter,a Nazi “martyr” who resisted the French occupation of the Rhineland and was killed in 1923. The dedication of this play (“Written for Adolf Hitler, with trembling reverence and unfailing devotion”) brought Jost to the attention of the Fuhrer and secured him a solid position among the Nazi elite. Jost pursued two goals in his theatrical work. The first is “a German must be born by blood and in fact in Germanism.” The second is that "the theater is the last pedagogical opportunity for saving the German nation from the complete materialism of an exclusively realistic world." Jost set the tone for the new national drama, repeating a line from his Schlageter: "When I hear the word 'culture', I, forgetting about safety, grab my revolver."

The only talented playwright who remained in Germany during the entire period of the Third Reich, whose plays were shown in many theaters, was Gerhard Hauptmann. This gifted author made peace with the Nazi authorities and his plays were allowed to be staged. In addition, good productions of Goethe, Schiller and Shakespeare were performed in various theaters. The dramas of Bernard Shaw were not affected by Nazi censorship because they made fun of the aristocracy and democracy. The German public, thirsty for entertainment, favored these classics, popular for a long time.

On the other hand, the theatrical public rejected the plays, permeated with frank Nazi propaganda, born in the depths of the Ministry of Propaganda and presented by it as satisfactory. The tone of the Nazi drama was heroic. The drama "March of the Veterans" by Friedrich Betzhe, staged in 1935, told the story of veterans of the Napoleonic wars who were looking for a leader, about marching patriots reborn from oblivion. Staged in 1938, Kurt Heinicke's play The Road to Empire tells the story of the fate of a determined Nazi who destroyed a traitor and managed to unite the Germans. German Passion by Richard Euhringer, which appeared in 1936, stars an unknown soldier who was looking for a better world for himself, fighting capitalists and intellectuals. The play Panama Scandal by Eberhard Wolfgang Müller, staged in 1936, shows how democracy was destroyed by corrupt politicians, which in fact was an attack on the Weimar Republic. Some Nazi playwrights won Goebbels' approval by bringing racial doctrine to the stage. However, such plays failed to win the attention of the German public.

Taylor, Alan John Percival

(Taujog), English historian, author of the first revisionist interpretation of the causes of World War II. Born March 25, 1906 in Barkdal, Lancashire. He graduated from Bootham School in York and Oriel College in Oxford. He taught at the University of Manchester (1930-1938), did research work and directed a group at Magdalen College, Oxford from 1938 to 1963; lectured on world history at Oxford from 1953 to 1963. Author of many works on German colonial policy, the history of the Habsburg monarchy, European diplomacy, the history of the 1st and 2nd world wars and recent English history. ^ His “Course of German History" ( New York, 1946), which traces in detail the development of Germany from the time of the French Revolution to the present day, is considered by many historians to be one of the most brilliant expositions of German history ever written.

In 1961, Taylor published The Causes of the Second World War in New York, which was the first revisionist work on the causes of that war. He suggested that Hitler was not the main culprit in instigating the war and tried to refute the Nuremberg Tribunal's verdict that Hitler was primarily responsible for starting the war. The responsibility, according to Taylor, lies mainly with others, especially the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain,who, thanks to his own mistakes, pushed Hitler to aggression. Taylor believed that it was the erroneous policy of Great Britain that caused the outbreak of war, which Hitler never sought, and that the conquest of the world was never part of the Nazi plans. Hitler personally, Taylor argued, was grossly deceived by being drawn into aggression with the help of other countries under extreme circumstances beyond his control. Hitler was no better or worse than other contemporary statesmen. He never str- 

dear to the annexation of either Austria or Czechoslovakia. He was drawn into the Czechoslovakian crisis by Chamberlain. He never intended to put into practice the plans outlined in Mein Kampf. Taylor sharply opposed the decisive significance of the Hossbach conference and argued that the reason for its secret holding was caused only by Hitler's desire to confuse his opponents.

Taylor's book sparked fierce controversy. Many historians, most notably Trevor-Roper and G. F. Hudson, have regarded Taylor's revisionism as too painful for his book to be taken seriously in academia. In fact, all historians who wrote about the 2nd World War agreed that it was from Hitler that the main initiative to unleash the war came from, that it was he who outlined his future plans in Mein Kampf, and that the Hossbach Protocol was indisputable proof of his true plans. and goals. Most researchers view Hitler as a politician who deliberately started the war, and not got involved in it by mistake. Was it possible, they ask, for Hitler to get involved in the war on September 1, 1939, when his generals planned to start the war with Poland on May 23, 1939?

Critics refuse to accept Taylor's argument that Hitler only sought to destroy conditions in the East and had no intention of turning against Britain and France. If Hitler had managed to realize his own plans to the end, one of the opponents said, Taylor himself would have died long ago in Buchenwald or Dachau.

Taylor, Telford

(Taujog), American lawyer, leader of the war crimes defense team during the Nuremberg trials. Born February 24, 1908 in Schenectady, New York. He graduated from Williams College in 1928 and a Bachelor of Laws from Harvard in 1932. He taught history and political science for a year, then began practicing law at

Brigadier General Telford Taylor

New York City (1932-1933), was Deputy Chief Attorney for the US Department of the Interior (1933-1934). Taylor was General Counsel to the Federal Communications Commission from 1940-1942. From April 1943 to May 1945 he served as a military intelligence officer in the European theater of operations, specializing in cases related to the German High Command.

From June 1945 to October 1949, Taylor was team leader for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials, where he played an important role in unraveling the tangle of accusations against the Nazi establishment. In April 1946, Taylor was promoted to brigadier general. He later became a professor of law at Columbia University and also lectured at Yale Law School. Among his publications relating to the Third Reich are "The Sword and the Swastika: Generals and Nazis in the Third Reich" (New York, 1952), "The Rising Wave: World War II in the Summer of 1940" (New York, 1967).

Telman, Ernst

(Tbaeitapp), (1886-1944), leader of the German Communists, one of Hitler's main political opponents. Born April 16, 1886 in Hamburg. Worker. In 1903 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), and in 1904 he joined the trade union of transport workers. In 1915 he was drafted into the army and sent to the Western Front. In 1918, Telman participated in the November Revolution in Germany as part of the left wing of the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD). In 1920 he joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). Since December 1920, the chairman of the Hamburg organization of the KKE and a member of the city council. In the summer of 1923, as a delegate to the 3rd Congress of the Comintern, he visited the Sov. Russia. In 1924-33 he was a member of the Reichstag from the KPD. From the beginning of 1925 he headed the Union of Red Front-line Soldiers. At the end of 1925 Telman was elected chairman of the Central Committee of the KKE, completely subordinating the German communist movement to the instructions of Moscow. Twice, in 1925 and in 1932, Thalmann ran for the presidency of Germany. In the presidential election of March 13, 1932, he received 4,983,197 votes, against 18,650,730 for Hindenburg, 11,339,285 for Hitler and 2,557,729 for TheodoRaDuisterberg. In the re-election of April 10, 1932, he received 3,706,655 votes, against 19,359,650 for the victorious Hindenburg and 13,418,011 for Hitler. After Hitler came to power in 1933, Telman went underground. A few days after the Reichstag fire, he was arrested and imprisoned in the Moabit prison in Berlin (1933-37), then kept in the Hannover (1937-43) and Bauzen (1943-44) prisons. In August 1944, Telman was transferred to the Buchenwald concentration camp, where he was shot on August 18, 1944 on the direct orders of Hitler and Himmler.

Terboven, Josef

(Tergoven), (1898-1945), Nazi Reichskommissar of Norway. Born May 23, 1898 in Essen. By profession a bank employee. In 1930 he was elected to the Reichstag from the Nazi Party in the Düsseldorf-West constituency. In 1933 he was appointed to the Prussian State Council and became a Gauleiter from the NSDAP in Essen. Terboven's position in party circles was strengthened after the Fuhrer attended his wedding on June 28, 1934 in Essen. On February 5, 1935, Terboven was appointed President of the Rhineland, and in September 1939, Reich Commissar for Defense of the VI Defensive District.

After the Nazi invasion of Norway on April 9, 1940, Hitler saw fit to appoint a credible governor. The Fuhrer was dissatisfied with the actions of the puppet Norwegian Prime Minister Vidkun Quisling, who was unable to secure support from the Norwegians, and removed him on April 15, only 6 days after Quisling proclaimed himself Prime Minister of the country. Initially, an administrative council was created in Norway, consisting of 6 leading Norwegian citizens, including Bishop Eivind Berggrav, head of the Norwegian Lutheran Church, and Pal Berg, president of the Supreme Court (later head of the Norwegian resistance movement). Hitler did not trust this advice and on April 24, 1940, Terboven was appointed Reichskommissar for Norway, giving him the rank of SA Obergruppenführer (general).who wanted to keep the administration of occupied Norway in the hands of the military. When Hitler informed Keitel that he would nevertheless appoint a Gauleiter to the position, Keitel threw his briefcase on the table and left the room.

Terboven's brutal leadership in this post was reminiscent of the rule of Reinhard Heydrich and Czechoslovakia. In the first months of his reign, Terboven took measures that gave the impression that the Norwegian Jews would not be persecuted, but little by little the situation of the Jews in Norway became worse and worse.

In June 1941, shortly after the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Terboven rounded up Jews in Tromsø and other northern cities in Norway and deported them to Germany. Others arrested in Trondheim

me were executed. The Jews in Oslo were not touched, but on February 2, 1942, Terboven ordered all of them to sew a Star of David on their clothes and put down the letter “3” (“Jew”) in their documents.

Terboven was suspicious of all Norwegians. While in office, he, among other things, arranged for the export of Norwegian granite to Germany, which was used to erect the heroic statues of Hitler designed by Albert Speer. Terboven died in May 1945, allegedly by suicide.

Terezienstadt

(Tbegezіepzіagіі), a concentration camp located in northern Bohemia, 60 km from Prague. In November 1941, Reinhard Heydrich ordered the evacuation of 7,000 local residents and the construction of a special concentration camp for Jews. Initially, Theresienstadt had a reputation as a particularly humane camp for displaced persons. The Jews of Prague, who were taken to Theresienstadt by the thousands, were confident that they would be able to survive in the "model ghetto". Among the Jewish prisoners were the elderly, war veterans, former civil servants and Jews married to Aryans. Some went to the extent of bribing Gestapo agents in order to be sent to Theresienstadt.

The legend of the humane concentration camp died as soon as Heydrich designated Theresienstadt as a transit station on the way to the extermination camps (see "Final Solution''-, "Death Camps"). The Jews of Amsterdam, initially considered unrelated to the Eastern Jews, lost their privilege in February 1944. They were also sent to Theresienstadt for final transport in cattle cars to the Auschwitz extermination camp. Theresienstadt was liberated in April 1945 and then destroyed.

Tillich, Paul

(ТіІІісН), (1886-1965), German theologian, opponent of the Nazi regime. Born August 20, 1886 in Starzedelle. He studied at the universities of Berlin, Tübingen, Halle and Dresden. He was a teacher of theology at the University of Berlin (1919-24), a professor of theology in Marburg (1924-25), taught religious philosophy in Dresden and Leipzig, and was dean of the University of Frankfurt am Main. In Berlin, Tillich co-founded a movement known as religious socialism. As one of the leaders of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Tillich developed a theological system based on "Protestant principles", according to which every "yes" must have a corresponding "no". He did not consider human truth as the ultimate truth. He included depth psychology in his system, which he considered an integral part of the improvement of Christian doctrine. In 1933, Tillich was fired from Frankfurt University for opposing the Nazi authorities. At the invitation of Reinhold Niebuhr, he arrived in New York and began to teach philosophy at the United Theological Seminary. In 1955 he became a professor at Harvard University. In 1956-58 he worked at the universities of Berlin and Hamburg, and from 1962 at the University of Chicago. Tillich died in Chicago on October 22, 1965.

Tingspilstadten

(TіpdzrіеІzіаNep), Nazi propaganda performances in the open air. Performances took place in natural scenery, on hillsides or among ancient ruins. The Nazis resurrected the ancient Teutonic clan Things as support for the National Socialist ideology. Tingshpil is a special kind of spectacle, including military formations, pagan oratorios, demonstrations of horsemanship and circus performances. Whole battalions of the Hitler Youthparticipated in battle scenes, depicting the battle. Particular attention was paid to pagan beliefs in earth, air, fire and water. In addition, Nazi “martyrs” were honored to be present as an adjunct. Such performances were a kind of contribution of the Nazis to theatrical art.

Tirach, Otto Georg

(TbiegasI), (1889-1946), Reich Minister of Justice in 1942-45. Born in Würzen to a middle-class family. After graduating from high school, he studied law and political science in Marburg and Leipzig. He received his law degree in February 1914. Participated in the 1st World War (lieutenant), was awarded the Iron Cross II degree. After the war, he practiced law. In 1933 he was appointed Minister of Justice of Saxony, and in 1942 Reich Minister of Justice. On October 26, 1946, during the investigation of his case in Nuremberg, he committed suicide by hanging himself in a camp for displaced persons in Neumünster.

Thyssen, Fritz

(Tipuzzen), (1873-1951), a major German industrialist who provided significant financial support to Hitler and the National Socialist movement. The son of August Thyssen, one of the richest people of the era of Emperor Wilhelm II.

Born November 9, 1873 in Mulheim in the Ruhr. A staunch nationalist, Thyssen was enraged by the French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 and began to provide huge sums of money to fight the French occupation authorities. He was arrested and brought before a French military tribunal.

Thyssen's attitude towards the Weimar Republic was cool: "German democracy is nothing of itself." In 1923, Thyssen met the promising politician Adolf Hitler, who convinced him that he could destroy communism "on the German streets." Within 10 years, Thyssen donated more than 1 million marks to the National Socialist Party. Subsequently, he said that Hitler impressed him as a man who was ready to follow the path of restoration of the Hohenzollern dynasty.

In 1928 Thyssen founded the huge steel concern "Vereinigte Stalwerke". In 1931 he joined the NSDAP. On January 27, 1932, Thyssen invited Hitler to address a meeting of industrialists in Düsseldorf. The Nazi Fuhrer, who spoke for more than two hours, managed to consolidate his party capital (see Düsseldorf speech). In the 1932 presidential election, Thyssen supported Hitler: “I am firmly convinced that he is the only person who can and wants to save Germany from ruin and disgrace.” After Hitler became chancellor in 1933, Thyssen became head of a research institute dealing with the problems of the corporate state. The Nazi leadership regarded him as the country's leading economic expert.

By 1935, Thyssen began to have doubts about the Nazi regime. In 1938 he resigned from the Prussian Council of State in protest against the Nazi persecution of the Jews. Despite the fact that his business interests contributed to the pace of German rearmament, the leaders of the Nazi establishment treated him aloofly. He answered them the same way, for example, Dr. Robert Ley, who headed the German Labor Front, Thyssen called "a stuttering alcoholic." In 1939, Thyssen protested in the Reichstag against plans for an impending war. On December 28, 1939 he left Germany and settled in Switzerland. While in exile, Thyssen sent the following letter to Hitler:

"My conscience is clear. I don't feel guilty. My only mistake was that I believed in you, Adolf Hitler, the Fuhrer, and in your movement. I believed with the ardor that is inherent in a passionate German. Since 1923 I have made enormous sacrifices for the National Socialist movement. I aspired to become a member of the party and fought for this, without demanding or begging for anything for myself. I have always been inspired by the hope that our efforts will save our unfortunate German people. When the national

Fritz Thyssen

the Socialist Party came to power, the initial events seemed to confirm my faith, at least while von Papen was still Vice-Chancellor. The same von Papen to whom you owe your appointment as Chancellor of the Reich, with the support of President General von Hindenburg. The same von Papen before whom you took a solemn oath in a sacred place - Harrison's church in Potsdam - to defend the constitution. Do not forget that your ascent was not the result of some great revolutionary action, but was conditioned by the liberal constitution of the country to which you are bound by your oath.

However, over time, disastrous changes occurred. Already at an early stage, I felt that it was necessary to protest against the persecution of Christianity, against the bestial attitude towards its priests, against the desecration of its churches.

When on November 9, 1938, the Jews were robbed and tortured in the most cowardly and most cruel way, when their synagogues were destroyed all over Germany, I again protested. To demonstrate the extent of my disgust, I resigned as State Councilor. All my protests went unanswered.

Now you have made an agreement with the communists. Your Propaganda Ministry even dares to assert that the respectable Germans who voted for you and openly opposed communism are essentially similar to those bestial anarchists who plunged Russia into tragedy and whom you personally described as “ordinary criminals stained with blood” (“Mein Kampf”, p. 750)... Stop the senseless bloodshed, and Germany will find peace and thus preserve its unity.

I am obliged to explain the reasons that forced me to leave Germany. I haven't mentioned this yet. All documents relating to more than fifteen years of struggle, I safely hid. And I'm not going to give the enemy a moral weapon at a time when my homeland is waging the hardest struggle. I am and always will be a German in heart, thoughts and aspirations. I proudly and loudly declare my German origin and will do so until my last breath. And as a German, I will never allow myself to exercise the right to condemn Germany at a time of deepest national suffering. Someday it will become necessary and justified for the sake of truth. Listen to me, and you will hear the voice of the tormented German people, who is crying out to you: "Think about it, return freedom, law and humanity back to the German Reich."

I will be silent. I would like to see what you intend to do. I believe that this letter cannot be hidden from the Germans. I wait. If the German people are deprived of the right to hear my words, the words of a free and honest German, then I will appeal to the conscience of the whole world, and let the world pass judgment. I wait.

Long live Germany!

FricTissen

Thyssen never received an answer from the Fuhrer to his letter. Instead, five weeks later, German newspapers announced that Thyssen had been stripped of his German

citizenship and the confiscation of his property. He was arrested in France and sent to a concentration camp with his wife, where he stayed until 1945. Thyssen died in Buenos Aires on February 8, 1951.

Todt, Fric

(Togіі), (1891-1942), Reich Minister of Arms and Ammunition. Born September 4, 1891 in Pforheim (Baden) in the family of the owner of a jewelry factory. After graduating from the gymnasium, he studied at the Higher Technical School in Munich (1911-14) and in Karlsruhe (1918-20). Member of the 1st World War: in 1914-16 he served on the Western Front, in 1916-18 - in reconnaissance aviation, was wounded in an air battle. After the war he worked as a civil engineer. In 1923 he joined the Nazi Party. In 1931 he became an SS Standartenführer (colonel) in Himmler's department. He headed the organization established in 1933, which was engaged in the construction of the most important military installations, including defensive structures and high-speed highways (see Autobahns; Todt organization). At the same time he was appointed head of the Four Year Plan.In 1938, he was entrusted with the construction of the defensive structures of the "Western Wall". In 1940-42, Todt headed the Ministry of Defense

FricTodt

weapons and ammunition. He died in a plane crash near Rastenburg on February 8, 1942. The official conclusion was that the Hey//Kel ~ 111 aircraft on which Todt was flying was equipped with an automatic self-destruct mechanism, and the pilot turned it on by mistake. The post of Todt was taken by the Fuhrer's court architect Albert Speer, who became the Reich Minister for the armaments of the military industry.

Todta, organization

A paramilitary government organization established in 1933 to develop and build a road and rail network in order to improve the ability to transport troops in case of war. She also carried out the design and construction of defensive structures, including the “Western Wall”, underground command posts, headquarters, etc. The organization was headed by Fritz Todt (until his death in 1942), and then the Minister of Armaments and Military Industry Albert Speer.

Toller, Ernst

(ToIIeg), (1893-1939), German writer, poet and playwright. Born December 1, 1893 in Zamotszyn (now Zamosc, Poland) in the family of a Jewish shopkeeper. He studied in Grenoble, then in Heidelberg and Munich. Member of the 1st World War, volunteered for the army, later organized strikes to end the war. After the war, he participated in the revolutionary movement in Bavaria, was elected president of the Bavarian Soviet Republic. After the suppression of the revolution, he was sentenced to 5 years; in prison he wrote Requiem for the Murdered Brothers (1920), Poems of Prisoners (1921), several dramas, including Mass Man (1921), in the center of which is the problem of the relationship between the goals and means of the revolutionary struggle. Most of Toller's plays are marked by deep concern for the fate of the working man in a capitalist society, as well as the horrors of war. He generously used expressionist techniques in his work. His pen

ErnstToller

dramas belong to: “Robot-People” (1922), “Hopple, we live” (1927), “Down with the truce!” (1936), "Pastor Hall" (1939). After the Nazis came to power, Toller's books were burned, and he himself was deprived of German citizenship. He emigrated to the United States, where he took part in the anti-Hitler movement and published autobiographical notes "Youth in Germany" ( 1933). In a state of depression, he committed suicide in New York on May 22, 1939.

Thomas, Georg

(Totaz), (1890-1946), general of the German army, head of the economic department of the OKW. Born February 20, 1890 in Brandenburg. In the army since 1908. During the 1st World War he served in the headquarters of various regiments, as well as in the General Staff. He was awarded numerous awards, including the Order of Hohenzollern, the Iron Cross of the 1st degree, the Cross for Military Merit, etc. After the war, he served at the headquarters of the 4th Infantry Division in Dresden. In 1928-38, Thomas was chief of staff of the artillery and technical supply of the armed forces. On January 1, 1938, he was promoted to the rank of major general, and soon he was appointed head of the economic department of the German High Command (OKW). In the summer of 1939, Thomas submitted Wilhelm Keitela detailed report illustrating the economic readiness of the Reich for a war with other great powers, against the background of which the backwardness of Germany did not raise any doubts. Having read the report, Hitler nonchalantly declared that the USSR would be an ally of the Reich. Realizing that Hitler would lead Germany to disaster, Thomas began to probe the ground among the generals in order to remove Hitler from power, but he failed to find like-minded people. Moreover, he narrowly escaped arrest after General Walther von Brauchitsch informed Thomas's intentions to the head of the Abwehr , Wilhelm Canaris. Thomas decided to temporarily resign himself to fate. On January 1, 1940, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general, and on August 1, 1940, to the rank of infantry general.

After the German attack on the Soviet Union, Thomas repeatedly visited the Eastern Front with inspection trips, where he witnessed the massacres of the Jewish population. Shocked by what he saw, Thomas, together with Baron Friedrich Falkenhausen, visited Brauchitsch and told him that Brauchitsch was also to blame for the reprisals against Jews carried out everywhere in the occupied territories. The field marshal left Thomas' statement unanswered.

On May 6, 1942, Thomas was introduced to the armaments council, where he was engaged in the development of the economic exploitation of the occupied territories. Then he was appointed head of the armaments department of the Ministry of Arms and Military Industry. November 20, 1942 he left this post, continuing to work in the OKW.

When it became finally clear to Thomas that the war was lost, he abandoned his last attempts to put together a conspiracy against Hitler. However, after the failure of the July Plot of 1944 , Thomas's name surfaced in the documents of the conspirators, he was arrested and sent first to the Flossenbürg concentration camp, then to

Dachau, and later to a camp in South Tyrol, where he was liberated by American troops. Thomas died in 1946.

Thompson, Dorothy

(Thorson), (1894-1961), American journalist. She worked as a foreign correspondent in Vienna (1920-24) and in Berlin (1924-28), where she headed the Central European Bureau. She was among the first to warn of the dangers of the growing Nazi movement in Germany. In 1934 she was expelled from Germany on Hitler's orders. She was the author of one of the first books about Hitler, I Saw Hitler ( I Deputy / Hiiieg, New York, 1932). part of Fritz Kuhn, died in Lisbon on January 31, 1961.

Torgau

A city on the Elbe, 140 km south of Berlin, where on April 25, 1945, advanced units of the 58th Guards Rifle Division of the 5th Guards Army of the 1st Ukrainian Front (Marshal I. S. Konev) and the 69th Infantry Division of the 1st American army. Moscow saluted the Torgau meeting with 24 volleys of 324 guns; similar celebrations were held in Times Square in New York.

Torgler, Ernst

(Togdieg), German politician, communist. He was among those accused of setting fire to the Reichstag. Born April 15, 1893 in Berlin. His father was a laborer at a gas plant, his mother was a member of the Social Democratic Party and a friend of August Bebel.

Even in his youth, Torgler joined the socialist movement. Volunteer participated in the 1st World War. In 1920 he joined the Communist Party of Germany. In 1924-33 member of the Reichstag, chairman of the communist faction. He was an implacable opponent of National Socialism.

Torgler was arrested on February 28, 1933, on charges of complicity in the Reichstag fire. He was under investigation for seven months, five of which he spent shackled around the clock. The charge against Torgler consisted of three counts; participation in arson; aiding the Dutchman Van derLubbe, the Bulgarians Georgy Dimitrov and Blagoya Popov, and the Macedonian Vasily Tanev; activities in the banned Communist Party of Germany. At the trial, the trader stated; “I categorically declare that the struggle for socialism was the essence and meaning of my life. I fought in the interests of the working class against the idealism of which a man is capable, and I assure you that I will not stop sacrificing all the best that I have for the sake of the workers of Germany.

The charges against Torgler were so unconvincing that the court was forced to acquit him. The pressure of the world community also played its role in this decision. After the trial, Torgler was again arrested by the Nazi authorities. In 1935 he was expelled from the Communist Party, apparently for having openly registered with the police against party orders. Later he joined the Social Democratic Party, conducted underground work.

Tottenburg

(Toelbigdep - “Castles of Death”), a soldier’s memorial, which, according to Hitler’s plan, was planned to be built on the Atlantic coast of Europe, as “an eternal monument in honor of the liberation of the continent from British domination.” In addition, the Fuhrer was going to build several huge towers on the eastern borders of Germany , as a symbol of the Third Reich's conquest of the "chaotic forces in the East" The building plans were never carried out.See also: Architecture in the Third Reich.

Totenbuch

(Toiepcici - "The Book of Death"), the registration journal of the concentration camp administration, in which the names of the executed prisoners were recorded.

Tottenfogel

("ToiepTbdeI" - "Birds of Death"), the common name for the Nazi party leaders of the lower level, whose duty it was to notify the families of soldiers in the event of their death on the battlefields. They were also responsible for holding solemn farewell ceremonies for fallen heroes.

Treblinka

(Tgeyipka), one of the four main "death camps" on the territory of Poland, in fact, was a factory for the destruction of the Jewish population. It was founded in July 1942. Over the years of its existence, about 700 thousand people were killed in Treblinka. There were 30 gas chambers in the camp, which "provided" the killing of about 25 thousand people a day with the help of Zyklon-B gas.

Treviranus, Gottfried

(Trevihapus), (1891-1971), statesman of the period of the Weimar Republic. Born March 20, 1891 in Schieder, Lippe. During the 1st World War, a naval officer. In 1924-32 a member of the Reichstag from the German Nationalist Party opposed the intentions of party leader Alfred Hugenberg to cooperate with Hitler. After leaving the party in 1930, Treviranus created his own organization, the People's Conservative Union.

In 1930-32, he held minor positions in the government of Chancellor Heinrich Bruning, while remaining a firm opponent of Hitler and National Socialism. In 1934, during the events of the Night of the Long Knives, he barely managed to escape reprisal and escape when two trucks with SS men drove up to his house. Later he moved to England, then to Canada. Treviranus returned to Germany in 1948 and worked in industrial production.

Trevor-Roper, Hugh Redwald

(Trevog-Poreg), English historian, specialist in the history of the Third Reich. Born January 15, 1914 in Northumberland. He studied at Charterhouse Spool and Christ Church, Oxford, from which he graduated with honors. He was a professor of modern history at Oxford. He specialized in the history of the 16th and 17th centuries, especially the period of the Reformation, and later turned to the history of the Third Reich. Author of several serious works on this topic, including generally recognized studies; “The Last Days of Hitler” (London, 1947), “Hitler’s Military Directives, 1939-1945.” (London, 1964).

Troykhander

(Treulanbeg - "Trustees, guardians"), an organization created by the Nazi authorities in 1940 to exploit the resources and population of conquered Poland in order to achieve its speedy assimilation with the Third Reich. Carried out the confiscation of peasant property and the forcible resettlement of 500 thousand Poles to Germany for work in agriculture and 100,000 in German industrial enterprises.Under her leadership, thousands of Polish university professors, lawyers, and doctors were sent to concentration camps, Polish language and literature textbooks were destroyed, and the university library in Warsaw was razed to the ground.

"Troykhander will not be late"

(Treubaner beg Arley - "State Trustees for Employment"), Nazi officials who replaced labor unions and employee organizations in the conclusion of labor agreements. Established by law of May 19, 1933. There were 13 “trustees” corresponding to 13 economic regions of the Third Reich. They were appointed by the central authorities and were responsible to them. The introduction of the institution of "trustees" in practice meant the complete subordination of workers and employees to the National Socialist ideology,

Tresckow, Henning von

(Tgezskokhѵ), (1901-1944), major general of the German army, one of the leaders of the Resistance movement. Ro-

Major General Henning von Tresckow

Born January 10, 1901 in Magdeburg in an old Prussian family. In his youth, he was engaged in banking and exchange activities. At first, he accepted the National Socialist movement, because he considered it capable of freeing the country from the chains of the Treaty of Versailles, but soon became disillusioned with it and went over to the side of the opposition, then to the resistance, and finally to the conspiracy.

During the 2nd World War, he participated in the Polish and French campaigns, received the rank of major general. Then he served as deputy to General Fedor von Bock on the Eastern Front, whom he tried to persuade to conspire against Hitler. Von Tresckow was among the participants in the assassination attempt on Hitler in Smolensk on March 13, 1943. At the end of 1943, General Friedrich Erich von Manstein, despite his personal sympathy for von Tresckow, refused to appoint him to the post of chief of staff of Army Group South, knowing about anti-Hitler sentiments Tresko. Von Tresckow's attempts to get a transfer to the Fuhrer's headquarters in Rastenburg in order to carry out an assassination attempt on Hitler were unsuccessful. Leader of the July Plot 1944 Lieutenant Colonel Klaus Schenk Count von Stauffenbergadvised von Tresckow to remain on the Eastern Front, declaring that he would personally lead the terrorist act in Rastenburg. Upon learning that the plot had failed, von Tresckow, in desperation, decided to commit suicide. “They will soon find out about me,” he said to his adjutant Schlabrendorf, “and they will try to extract the names of our comrades from me. To warn them, I must sacrifice my life.” Schlabrendorf tried to convince von Tresckow. However, on July 21, 1944, von Tresckow went to the front line. Riding away from his escort, he fired his revolver into the air, apparently in the hope of inciting return fire. Then he blew himself up with a hand grenade. His dying words subsequently became well known throughout Germany: “We did the right thing. In a few hours I will stand before God, responsible for all my actions and omissions. I believe I can say with a clear conscience that I tried to fight against Hitler. God once promised Abram to spare Sodom if there were at least a dozen men in the city. I hope that what we have done will convince Him to spare and save Germany. We don't complain. Whoever joined the resistance put fate at stake. The dignity of a person is that a peony is ready to sacrifice his life for the sake of what he believes in.

Third Reich

(fae Ogіііе VeіsK — "Third Empire"), the official Nazi name for the regime that existed in Germany from January 1933 to May 1945. Hitler regarded Nazi rule as a logical continuation of the two previous German empires. The First Reich—the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation—existed from 962, from the time of the coronation in Rome of Otto the Great, the second ruler of the Saxon dynasty, until his conquest by Napoleon in 1306. The Second Reich was founded by Otto von Bismarck in 1871 and lasted until 1918, until the end the Hohenzollern dynasty. In 1923, the German nationalist writer Arthur Möller Vandei Bruck used the term "Third Reich" for the title of his book. Hitler enthusiastically accepted this name for 

designation of a new empire, which, in his opinion, will last a thousand years. This name also attracted him because it had a certain mystical connection with the Middle Ages, when the “third kingdom” was considered a thousand years old.

"Triumph of the Will"

(Tgіtrb sans VIIIepz), a feature-length documentary film by film director and producer Leni Riefenstahl, dedicated to the celebrations that took place in September 1934 at the annual congress of the National Socialist German Workers' Party in Nuremberg.

Shot with the support of the Fuhrer, the film was released in 1936 and immediately received wide recognition both in Germany and abroad as a masterpiece of film directing and unusual film effects. After its premiere at the UFA-Palast cinema in Berlin, the film was awarded the National State Prize, a gold medal at the Venice Film Festival and the Grand Prix from the French government at the Paris Film Festival.

In the book Behind the Scenes of the Imperial Party Congress (1935; "Nіpіeg run Kііііѕїn without NeіsNzrаііііad") Leni Riefenstahl told about how this film was made. On the eve of the convention, she managed to gather a group of 30 talented operators and a huge staff of technical workers. Special trucks and cranes were prepared for panoramic filming, holes for cameras were dug in front of the stands, etc. The Fuhrer was so impressed with the preparatory work of Leni Riefenstahl that he immediately agreed to the shooting and subsequent distribution of this film without the approval of the Minister of Propaganda, Dr. Goebbels, who still tried to interfere with the director. Despite the opposition of Goebbels, Leni Riefenstahl managed to turn the pompous boring parades and speeches of Nazi leaders into an extraordinary spectacle and created a film that has become a masterpiece of world documentary filmmaking.

Director's storyboard of the film "Triumph of the Will":

Long orchestral introduction, Wagner melodies sound. In the background, the German eagle slowly emerges, against its background the title “Triumph of the Will” and the credits:

“Created by order of the Führer in honor of the 20th anniversary of the start of the World War, the 16th anniversary of the start of German suffering and 19 months after the start of the German renaissance. 1934 Party Congress.

The Fuhrer's face emerges through the clouds, the image slowly emerging against their pale background. Quiet romantic music creates an impression of divinity. Below are the city blocks of old Nuremberg. The Nazi anthem "Horst Wessel" begins. The shadow of Hitler's plane skims over the columns of marching people in the street below. The frames are enlarged, the camera goes lower and lower to the streets of the city, filled with marching columns.

The airport. The Fuhrer's plane is taxiing. Greeted by crowds, people crane their necks, their hands a sea of ​​Nazi salutes. The leader appears. The crowd explodes in a frenzy. Goebbels in a raincoat accompanies the Fuhrer, smiling contentedly.

Entry to Nuremberg. The camera is behind Hitler in his car, a large collision with the Führer's arm extended in greeting.

Crowds filling the sidewalks salute him. The montage is the hand of Hitler and the faces in the crowd as the car drives through the endless streets filled with people. Music creates and reflects the mood of hospitality. Hitler's car stops near a woman with a small daughter, they give flowers to the Fuhrer. During the drive, there are frequent shots of people in the crowd, people in the windows of houses above, a cat on a balcony decorated with flags.

Nuremberg, its ancient gothic roofs, medieval fountains, Nazi banners. Hitler's face, stern and frozen, there is not even a shadow of a smile on it now. Beautiful

Leni Riefenstahl on the set of the film "Triumph of the Will"

the faces of the soldiers are turned towards the sun. Rows of boots. “Sig, heil!” the cry of the crowd. Hitler drives up, goes to the balcony above the crowds, smiles.

First night of the convention. Torches, military music, bonfires. Picturesque visual effects - creeping smoke in the beams of spotlights. Silhouettes of heads in helmets. Waves of banners, banners, flags are backlit from the darkness.

Sunrise over the rooftops of Nuremberg. Huge youth camp. Slow "dawn" music accompanies the awakening of the sleeping. Scenes in the camp. Eating. Wrestling competition. Laughing boyish faces. A procession of men and girls in folk costumes passes through the streets of Nuremberg. A little girl is eating an apple. Montage - from a girl to Hitler, the father of his people. He shakes hands with youth delegates in folk costumes. Close-ups show the face of Hitler interested in what is happening. He addresses the representatives of the youth movement. The kid put his finger in his mouth and looks at the Fuhrer.

The congress hall is filled with people as far as the eye can see. Spotlight beams move over their heads, symbolic eagles, banners. G verifies Hess: “We remember the dead. We welcome our foreign guests. We see how the Wehrmacht is being revived thanks to the Fuhrer. The greatness of the future - only it will allow us to appreciate the greatness of the Fuhrer. The Fuhrer is Germany! His verdict is the verdict of the nation [an allusion to the "purge" of the SA]. Germany is home to Germans all over the world.”

Wagnerian music. The leaders approach to pay tribute to Hitler. Rosenberg is worried and sweating. Dietrich; "We want everyone to know the truth about the German people." Streicher talks about racial purity. Goebbels: “The flame of our enthusiasm will give life and warmth; it will rise from the deepest roots of our people. It is good to have guns and bayonets, but it is much more important to have the hearts of the nation.” Hitler applauds wildly.

Hitler addresses the soldiers of the Labor Front, who lined up in orderly rows with shovels on their shoulders. The ceremony is similar to a church service. People sing in unison: “We are here, we are ready.” Roll call of representatives of different lands and districts. The chanting continues; “People, Reich, Fuhrer! We are planting trees. We are building streets. We give peasants new lands. All this for the sake of Germany!”

Banners bow solemnly to slow music. Shovels are lowered in front of the huge silhouette of the German eagle rising over the Nuremberg stadium. Hitler stands with inexorably magnanimous concentration. Then he addresses those standing in front of the podium: “Land and labor unite us all. The whole nation will follow your path. Germany is happy to see her sons marching.”

Night again. Torches burn brightly behind the silhouetted figures. Lutze [Röhm's successor as head of the SA] refers to the stormtroopers. Fireworks and bonfires. Singing in the night.

Dawn. The parade of the Nazi youth. Drum beat and flute sounds. The boys, out of dress, tensely stretch out on tiptoe to see the Fuhrer. Hitler and Schirach, the youth leader, arrive. Here Goebbels is in uniform. Shirach says: “This hour fills us with pride and brings joy. We see that there are no differences between classes.” He turns to Hitler: “Loyalty. We will be faithful to you forever." Hitler steps forward and addresses the youth, whose perfect ranks give magnificent shots, which are interrupted by shots where the Fuhrer speaks. “You are only part of those millions who are not here now. You must learn to obey. (The boys' faces are visible in low-contrast sunlight.) Be peaceful and brave. Don't be pampered. Be firm and enduring. Live ascetically. We will die, but the future is yours. Banner, which we raised from oblivion, we will hand over to you. You are our flesh of flesh. Follow us everywhere. In front of us, around us, behind us, Germany is everywhere.” Drums beat to the beat of applause, drums close-up. Hitler leaves in a car, as if floating, through the ranks of the youth who greet him.

Many columns gather together and sing.

Military exhibition. (The army is in its infancy and doesn't make much of an impression yet.)

Lots of flags silhouetted in the night. Giant processions in the spotlights. A huge spectacular gathering in front of Hitler, standing on a platform filled with light in the stadium. Searchlights illuminate the German eagle. Hitler says: “Here are those with loyal hearts. Those who have not suffered as we have suffered will not be able to understand us. The state does not control us, but we control the state. It is not the state that creates us, but we create the state. Our movement is solid as a rock. Until at least one of us can still breathe, until then our movement will not be destroyed. Many closed rows resurrect the epic paintings of ancient Rome. Close-ups of Hitler on a platform flooded with light. He says: “We will never give up what we have created with such huge sacrifices.” The applause merges with the drum roll. The figure of the oratorical Hitler is visible through the close ranks. “We think of nothing but the Reich!” This scene is drowned in the smoky light of torches and searchlights. Hitler salutes.

The German eagle slowly approaches from perspective against the background of the figures of Hitler, Himmler and Lutze, filling the wide space of the me

waiting in close rows at the stadium. Dawn again, and music, slow and solemn; salute to the fallen. The three figures pay their respects, turn and leave.

A procession follows with banners adorned with an eagle and a swastika, like the great symbols of the Roman Empire. Huge movement of banners and flags. Lutze addresses the Fuhrer in front of crowds of stormtroopers; "We don't want to know anything, except that it is necessary to carry out any orders of the Führer." Hitler is standing - a lone figure on the podium, a silhouette against the sky. He says, “We have cast aside what hindered us. Now assault squads are better than ever. If anyone violates the morale of my assault squads, they will be punished [a direct reference to Ryom's "purge"]. Only a madman would think that we will disband what we have created. We live only for Germany. You [the stormtroopers] are still the most devoted unit in Germany." Next comes the ceremony of consecrating the banners of the stormtroopers with the "banner of blood" - a flag stained with the blood of Nazi martyrs. Stormtroopers set up new flags, Hitler touches them with the “banner of blood”. The guns are firing, the Fuhrer is consecrating new flags. He gazes into the faces of the stormtroopers, his face hard and determined. Solemn music. Nazi banners in full frame.

This is followed by a ceremonial march of all those who arrived at the convention. Hitler stands on a platform built on the street. The leaders, including Göring, are also marching; passing by the podium, they leave the column, turn and stand behind Hitler. The army passes through the old picturesque streets of Nuremberg. Endless rows move, the camera tries to capture countless faces. Hitler stands on the podium, visible from below, and greets them.

The final meeting at the Palace of Congresses. Beams of spotlights, banners with eagles. Hitler delivers a lengthy speech from a sheet, his face sweating, his hands gesticulating. He is excited, agitated, laughs nervously to himself, then with obvious pleasure receives a storm of applause. His eyelids flutter with excitement as he waits out the roar of applause. He can't help the triumphant smile on his close-up face. He is more varied than in previous speeches, when he did not have prepared speeches. He says that all purebred Germans should join the movement. Now he's here forever. He is determined to keep the lead and never leave it. “Much more will be required from you than from others,” he says. “I not only believe, I fight. Only the best can become members of the party ...

“Sieg heil!” the audience screams. Hitler ends by referring to the glorious traditions of the army and the movement. He returns to his seat amid thunderous applause. Hess steps forward, waiting for the applause to subside. Finally he shouts: "The Party is Hitler, Hitler is Germany." The hymn “Horst Wessel” begins to sound again. A swastika appears on the screen and gradually floats on the people marching behind.

Troost, Paul Ludwig

(Tgoozі), (1878-1934), a German architect who was part of Hitler's inner circle. Born August 17, 1878 in Wuppertal. He first made himself known by designing the interior of the German passenger liner Europe. His architectural style combined unadorned "Spartan" traditionalism and a gravitation towards classical forms. In 1930, Hitler commissioned Troost to rebuild the Barlow Palace in Munich into a complex of buildings for the new party headquarters (see "Brown House").Hitler was in awe of Troost's work and from that moment considered him the finest German architect of today. He often visited the workshop of Troost and for a long time examined the latest works of the architect. Troost designed many buildings, including the House of German Art in Munich. Any architect who dared to criticize Troost's work was immediately declared unfit to work on public projects. Troost died in Munich on March 21, 1934. Albert Speer replaced him as court architect .

Trot zu Soltz, Adam von

(TgoP go 8og), (1902-1944), adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, an employee of the Abwehr, a participant in a conspiracy against Hitler. Born in the family of the Prussian Minister of Education. Graduated from Oxford University. From 1934 he practiced law in Kassel. As an opponent of the Nazi regime, Trot zu Soltz joined the members of the anti-Hitler organization intent on establishing a government based on Christian values ​​in Germany (see Kreisau group).In 1935 he produced a new edition of the writings of Heinrich von Kleist, accompanied by commentaries that traced the connection between the poet's attacks on Napoleon's tyranny and contemporary events. Von Kleist, wrote Trotz Soltz, became a rebel, because "the divine predestination of man turned out to be trampled into dust", and the poet relied only on "the sense of decency of an individual citizen."

In 1937-38 Trotzu Soltz worked for the American Institute of Pacific Research in China. Interest in Eastern problems brought him closer to Ernst von Weizsacker,

Adam Trot zu Soltz before the People's Tribunal

Secretary of State of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, who invited him to work at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

In October 1938, Trotzu Soltz, while in Washington, tried to establish contacts with the local opponents of the Nazi regime from among the German emigration and enlist their support. In the summer of 1939, on a similar mission, he visited London. However, refugees from the Third Reich tended to see the young, idealistic German diplomat as a possible Gestapo agent.

After the failure of the July conspiracy of 1944, Trot zu Soltz was arrested and, by the verdict of the People's Tribunal , was executed on August 26, 1944.

Thule, society

(TiiІe OeseІІІсСаГі), created on the model of the Masonic lodges in Munich after the 1st World War, the order, which proclaimed as its official goals the study and popularization of ancient Germanic literature and culture

Coat of arms of the Thule Society

tours. In reality, the society preached extreme nationalism, racial mysticism, the occult, and anti-Semitism. The society was a branch of the Teutonic Knights, whose branches were scattered throughout Germany, and the headquarters was in Berlin.

The society got its name from the legendary land of Thule, which was reported by the Greek geographer Pytheas. Thule was interpreted in different ways: as one of the Shetland Islands, Norway (and Scandinavia in general) or Iceland. The land of Thule was considered the ancestral home of the ancient Germanic race.

The founder of the society was Rudolf von Sebottendorf, who attracted 250 people in Munich and another 1,500 people throughout Bavaria to the society. Among them were journalists, writers, poets, university professors, army officers. The list of members of the society included Dietrich Eckart, Rudolf Hess, Alfred Rosenberg.

The society's ideology was based on the concept of German racial superiority, anti-Semitism and the pan-German dream of a powerful new German Reich. Like many similar societies in Bavaria and in Germany in general, the Thule Society made extensive use of mystical symbols such as the swastika and elaborate elaborate magical rituals. Society motto: “Remember that you are German. Keep your blood pure!” ( “Sebepke, base Oi eip Oeiі- zsbeg Yzi. Naііе beіp VІiІ geіpі”).During the existence of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, members of the society infiltrated the army units, carried out propaganda work in them and replenished stocks of weapons and equipment to overthrow the communist regime. Members of the society were preparing an assassination attempt on one of the leaders of the Bavarian Republic, Kurt Eisner, but their plans were ahead of Count Anton Arko-Valli, a young officer of Jewish origin, who was denied admission to the society. Deciding to show his offenders an example of courage, he killed Eisner in February 1919. Members of the Thule Society negotiated with the founder of the German Workers' Party (CHP) , Anton Doeksler ,who worked at the Munich railway depot, about establishing contact with the working class and spreading his ideas among them. Many members of the society joined the CHP, and later the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany.

"Thousand Year Reich"

(Taizepsiyabgide Veiss), Hitler's concept of the duration of the existence of the national socialist state. In September 1934, at a party congress in Nuremberg, Hitler proclaimed the end of the revolution. “This revolution achieved, without exception, everything that was expected of it ... In the next thousand years there will be no new revolutions in Germany!”. From that moment on, the expression "Thousand-Year Reich" became widely used in Nazi Germany.

"Backstab"

(“Poissiozz”), Hitler's concept, according to which the German army and navy were defeated in World War I only because they were “stabbed in the back” by internal enemies and traitors - social democrats, liberals and Jews, whom Hitler constantly branded as "November criminals". The Nazi propaganda machine stubbornly created the legend of the “stab in the back” inflicted on the country and presented it as the only root of evil for all political and economic problems in Germany. The German layman easily accepted this theory, since it made it possible to shift the blame for the defeat of Germany on the Jews. Weimar Republicand democracy in general were identified in the German mind precisely with losing the war. Hitler constantly stirred up a feeling of indignation and resentment among the masses, which helped him prepare the social ground for seizing power in the country.

The expression "stab in the back" first appeared in the Neue Zürcher Zeitung on December 1, 1918, in a report from England: : It was a stab in the back by the civilian population.”

After the 1st World War, a special commission of the Reichstag investigated the reasons for the defeat of Germany in 1918. The report of General Hermann von Kuhl said:

“The expression “stab in the back” in a broad sense - as if the country was attacked by the victorious army from the rear, and the war was lost only because of this one reason - is unacceptable. We have become victims for many reasons.

There is no doubt that a pacifist, internationalist, anti-militarist and revolutionary disintegration of the army took place, which did it no small harm. Although the roots of this are within the country, the responsibility does not extend to the entire population, which, during the four and a half years of war, endured inhuman suffering; this applies only to agitators, those who corrupted the people and the army, who, for political reasons, tried to poison the bravely fighting troops.

The effect of their pernicious activity became especially noticeable after the failure of our offensive in the summer of 1918, when the war turned out to be hopelessly lost. But the subversion began long before that. It should not be said here 

as much about "stab in the back" as about poisoning the army.

The expression "stab in the back" applies to the unexpected and devastating consequences of the revolution itself. Literally destroying the army from the rear, it disrupted communication lines, prevented the dispatch of equipment and completely, almost with one blow, destroyed order and discipline. The revolution made further resistance impossible and forced them to accept any conditions for a cease-fire. The revolution was not the result of the failure of the offensive, although this greatly contributed to its beginning and consequences. On the contrary, the revolution was prepared much earlier.

The further development of the revolution increased the danger of the complete disintegration of the army during the retreat, and only then did a monstrous catastrophe occur.

Statement by Chairman Albrecht Philipp on the Kuhl report:

“Given the interpretation of the expression “stab in the back”, it would be better not to use this term at all, which, going beyond this building, will weaken the army’s will to fight. That this has happened many times cannot be denied. Undoubtedly, heavy the blame lies on the shoulders of those who encouraged the efforts to disintegrate or disintegrate the army.But the material at our disposal is not sufficient to assert that only this circle of people was responsible.Von Kuhl states quite rightly: "We became a victim for many reasons ". You can blame the revolution for having to abandon the prospects of a victorious war and embark on the path that ruined Germany. The expression "stab in the back" is absolutely correct when it comes to criticizing the consequences of the revolution, but it should be used only with reservations,if we are talking about the forces that prepared the ground for the revolution in Germany.”

Udet, Ernst

(Ссіеі), (1896-1941), German pilot, head of the technical department of the Luftwaffe. Born April 26, 1896 in Frankfurt am Main. He took private flying lessons in Munich, which were paid for by his father. During the 1st World War he was an observer-spotter, awarded the Iron Cross II degree. From 1916 - a fighter pilot, from February 1918 - squadron commander of the famous 1st fighter regiment of Baron Manfred von Richthofen (after the death of Richthofen, the regiment was commanded by Wilhelm Reinhardt, and then Hermann Goering). Shot down 62 enemy aircraft.

After the 1st World War, Udet was an auto mechanic in Munich, participated in demonstrative air battles (his partner was Robert von Greim). For some time he flew on passenger planes of the Rumpler airline on the Vienna-Munich line. He tried to design sports aircraft. In 1925 Udet moved to Buenos Aires. He was a charter airline pilot, flying from South America to Africa. Lived in the USA, filmed

Ernst Udet (left) talking to Professor Willy Messerschmitt

in Hollywood in several films, performing aerobatics. He was carried around the world until Hitler came to power. Returning to his homeland, Udet was warmly welcomed by his former commander Hermann Goering, who invited him to join the Luftwaffe in June 1935. With the support of the Reichsmarschall, Udet's career was swift. On February 10, 1936, he became an inspector of fighter and bomber aviation, and on June 9, 1936, he headed the technical department of the Luftwaffe. Lacking the appropriate education, experience in staff work and technical training, Udet, in fact, ruined the German Air Force construction program. Without appearing for weeks at work, he indulged in unrestrained drunkenness, arranged orgies, and took horse doses of drugs. The subordinates he recruited, as well as their boss, did not correspond to their positions.Nevertheless, titles and positions rained down on Udet like from a cornucopia. On April 20, 1937, he was awarded the rank of major general, on November 1, 1938 - lieutenant general. On February 1, 1939, Udet was appointed head of the combat supply of the Luftwaffe . April 1, 1940 he became an aviation general, July 19, 1940 - Oberst General.

In October 1940, despite the unsatisfactory results of flight tests, Udet ordered the Heinkel-177 bomber with a turbojet engine to be put into mass production. Numerous defects were found in the very first cars that came off the assembly line. Aircraft of this series exploded or fell apart in the air. Of the 1446 Xe-177 aircraft, only 33 made it to the front. The failed Udet project cost the Reich many millions of marks and several hundred lives of the most experienced pilots. Udet's career was finally ruined by the Messerschmitt-210 project. Relying on the high reputation of the designer, Udet ordered this aircraft to be put into production. The result was even more deplorable than in the case of Xe-177.

While Udet sank morally and physically lower and lower, the technical management of the Luftwaffe was gradually taken over by ErhardMilch. With the tacit consent of Goering, he managed to replace all Udet's assistants with his henchmen.

November 15, 1941 Udet committed suicide in a state of depression. For propaganda reasons, the German people were told that Udet had died while testing a new aircraft. At his funeral, the sentimental Goering shed rivers of tears, but later said: "He completely ruined our program for the development of the Luftwaffe."

Universities in the Third Reich

For generations, the German university system has been a model of higher education for the whole world. The level of training of students and the competence of the teaching staff enjoyed a well-deserved reputation. Meanwhile, the university system in Germany has always been distinguished by a nationalist spirit. In 1915, 450 university professors signed a declaration of support for Germany's military policy. Many academicians refused to accept the defeat of Germany in 1918 and were either hostile or indifferent to the democratic Weimar Republic.

In such an atmosphere, the German university system became easy prey for the Nazi Gleichschaltun policy. Distrustful of the general freethinking of university faculty, Hitler regarded the universities as a dangerous obstacle to the society he intended to build. His goal was to replace the former humanistic ideals of the higher education system with its own political-racial institutions that preached militarism and territorial expansion.

It should be noted that many of his plans received very substantial support from a certain part of academicians and professors.

The National Socialist purge of the universities began almost immediately after Hitler became Chancellor of Germany. In a short time, 1,200 university teachers, professors and academics, or almost a tenth of the teaching staff, mostly Jews, liberals and social democrats, were dismissed. Among them was a group of physicists from the University of Göttingen, who dealt with the problems of quantum mechanics, which was a heavy loss for German science, which firmly occupied the position of world leader. They left their chairs and were forced to emigrate the orientalist Paul Kahle, the theologian Karl Barth,teacher and psychologist Eduard Spranger. The historian Hermann Oncken, despite being an opponent of the Weimar Republic, was stripped of his professorship after he published a study on Robespierre's dictatorship. The staunch nationalist historian Friedrich Meinecke was fired from his post as editor-in-chief of the journal Historische Zeitschrift. Hundreds of teachers and scientists were forced to leave their posts and emigrate from the Third Reich.

However, a certain part of German professors and academicians supported the Nazi regime. Not recognizing Nazism during the years of the political struggle for power, they nevertheless changed their attitude towards it after Hitler became chancellor. When Nobel laureate Professor Frank left his university chair in protest against anti-Semitism, 33 professors and lecturers at the University of Göttingen regarded his act as an act of sabotage. The existentialist philosopher Martin Heidegger openly supported Nazi innovations: "The duty of students, as well as professors, is to serve the people in three ways: labor service, military service and scientific service." His positions were shared by well-known scientists Ernst Krik, Alfred Böhmler, Adolf Rein and others. The talented surgeon Ferdinand Sauerbruchaccepted from the Nazis an offer to take a high public office as a sign of support for the regime.

The new university administration functioned on the basis of the "Führer principle". The traditional university system of self-government was abolished, and all power was transferred to the rector appointed by the Nazi authorities. Often this position was occupied by an illiterate party functionary. At the University of Berlin, a former SA storm trooper and a veterinarian by profession became the new rector, who immediately introduced 86 courses in his specialty and 25 courses in "racial studies" (see "Rassenforschung").The places of the retired former teachers were taken by young Nazis, many of whom did not have sufficient experience and qualifications. All professors and teachers were obliged to adjust their lectures in accordance with the ideological requirements of National Socialism. No teacher could take up an academic post without first having completed a six-week training course under the National Socialist Union of Teachers program. There they were stuffed with National Socialist philosophy, they were required to pass exams for fitness for military service, and also demonstrate physical fitness.

The new curriculum focused on the basic elements of Nazi ideology: racism and nationalism. Professors and teachers were required to lecture on German physics, German chemistry, German mathematics, etc. At the same time, all modern physics as a whole was declared a "Jewish science", serving the destruction of German science. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity was presented as a Jewish conspiracy to achieve world domination and the conversion of the Germans into slavery.

As a result of the "reforms" carried out by Hitler in the higher education system, German universities during the Third Reich quickly lost their former brilliant reputation. The qualifications of the teaching staff have declined sharply. Not only did the level of student training fall, but their number also decreased: from 127,820 in 1933 to 58,325 in 1939. The damage inflicted by the Nazis as a result of the purge of the teaching staff on their own country turned out to be beneficial to the rest of the world: thousands of talented scientists and teachers continued their activities in US universities and laboratories , Great Britain and other countries, which in the end turned out to be a disaster for Germany.

See also Education in the Third Reich.

Untermenchen

(Underhumans), a term used by Nazi ideologists to refer to the “inferior” Slavic peoples in the East, primarily the population of the USSR. Strict adherence to the racial doctrine deprived the Germans of the support of millions of people in other countries who rejected the communist regime and Bolshevism.

Unterscharführer SS

(ОпІегзсІіагІіекігэг-88), a military rank in the SS, roughly corresponding to the combined arms rank of sergeant.

Untersturmführer SS

(ІІпіегэігт Гэбгэг-ЗЗ), a military rank in the SS, approximately corresponding to the combined arms rank of lieutenant.

GONE

(K8SNI-A), Nazi party court. See Investigation and Arbitration Committee.

“Subhuman” is the cover of an SS pamphlet issued in 1942. In the “subhuman” Nazi-racist propaganda for 20 years saw the opposite of the Nietzschean superman. The racist doctrine of Nazism initially hung this label on allegedly racially inferior Jews, later Poles and Russians fell into the same class

Falkenhausen, Alexander von

(Eaikepitaizep), (1878-1966), general of the German army. Born October 29, 1878 at the estate of Blumenthal in the district of Neisse. Member of the 1st World War; For his courage in battle, he was awarded a high award - the Medal of Merit. After the war, he headed the infantry school in Dresden, where Erwin Rommel studied. From 1931 to 1939 he was one of the German military advisers to Chiang Kai-shek. Despite Falkenhausen's protests, the Fuhrer ordered him to return to Germany along with his subordinates. From 1940 to 1944 Falkenhausen commanded the occupying forces in Belgium and North. France. He sympathized with the Resistance movement, but the conspirators began to shun him after he ordered the execution of hostages in Belgium. After the failure of the July 1944 conspiracyFalkenhausen was arrested and sent to the Dachau concentration camp, where he stayed until the end of the war. On April 28, 1945, he was liberated by the Americans. Subsequently, he was arrested by the American military administration and handed over to the Belgian authorities. A Belgian military tribunal accused him of executing hostages and deporting Jews and Belgian workers. March 9, 1951 Falkenhausen was sentenced to 12 years hard labor, but he was soon released. Died in Nassau July 31, 1966.

False trumpets

(EaІІзсІtіgtіgirrep; Е5Т), airborne troops successfully used by the Germans in blitzkrieg tactics, in particular, when attacking about. Crete May 20, 1941.

Faulhaber, Michael

(Eaiikaber), (1869-1952), Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church in the Third Reich. Born March 5, 1869 in Klosterheidenfeld, Lower Franconia. Ordained a priest in 1892, in 1903 he was a teacher of the Old Testament in Strasbourg, in 1911 he was appointed bishop of Speyer. Defended the interests of Germany in the 1st World War: "The war waged by Germany to avenge the murder in Sarajevo will go down in the annals as a model of a just war." In 1917 he was appointed Archbishop of Munich-Freysing. In 1921 he became a cardinal. In this post, Faulhaber was a firm advocate of Bavarian Catholicism, energetically defending the church and its teachings. Despite the declared freedom of religion in the Weimar Republic , Faulhaber criticized the republican government for "giving equal rights to truth and error."

After the establishment of the Nazi regime in the country, Faulhaber was

Cardinal von Faulhaber

forced to maneuver between the needs of the church and the demands of the Nazi authorities. A few days after the March 1933 elections, he spoke a b Ііtіpa, demanding that he be allowed to visit Rome in order to inform Pope Pius XI about the new situation in Germany. When he returned, he informed an assembly of Bavarian bishops that the pope had publicly praised Chancellor Hitler for his opposition to communism. Faulhaber also said that he had presented to the pope his vision of the differences between German Nazism and Italian fascism.

Cardinal Faulhaber welcomed the conclusion of the 1933 Concordat between the government of the Third Reich and the Catholic Church, although it became almost immediately apparent that Hitler did not intend to strictly adhere to the terms of this agreement. In November 1933, Faulhaber protested against the imposition of a “new paganism”, defended the Old Testament and warned that “a person cannot be deprived of self-esteem and cannot be treated like a slave deprived of any rights.” In July 1936, upon learning that Swiss church leaders had turned to their flock to pray for Hitler's death, Faulhaber urged them to pray for the Führer: "Catholics, we will now all pray together for the life of the Führer."

Despite the ongoing attacks on the church, Cardinal Faulhaber tried to soften relations with the Nazi authorities. November 4, 1936 Hitler invited him to the Berghof,in Obersalzberg. During the meeting, which lasted three hours, the Fuhrer sought to alleviate the concerns of the abbot. “The Catholic Church,” Hitler reasoned, “should not deceive itself. If National Socialism fails to defeat Bolshevism, then the Church and Christianity will also cease to exist in Europe. Bolshevism is a mortal enemy of the church, much more so than fascism.” In 1938, during the Anschluss of Austria, Faulhaber urged Catholics to pray for peaceful cooperation between church and state for the sake of the Greater German Reich. During the Czech crisis at the end of 1938, he asked the German bishops to send congratulations to Hitler “for this great step in the preservation of international peace.” At the same time, he sought to alleviate the suffering of the victims of Nazism.

On November 9, 1938, during the Kristallnacht pogroms, Cardinal Faulhaber expressed sympathy for the affected Jews, supporting the call of the Chief Rabbi of Munich to save places of worship (synagogues) from destruction.

Karl Friedrich Goerdeler, one of the main participants in the resistance movement, tried to win over Cardinal Faulhaber to his side and informed him of the existing conspiracy against Hitler. However, the cardinal, despite the ongoing attacks on the Catholic Church, refused to participate in the conspiracy. After the failure of the July Plot of 1944 , Faulhaber was thoroughly interrogated by the Gestapo, especially about his meetings with Gördeler. The cardinal publicly condemned the attempted terrorist attack and reaffirmed his personal allegiance and loyalty to Hitler. He died in Munich on June 12, 1952.

See also: Religion in the Third Reich.

Fegelein, Hermann

(Eedeijp), (1906-1945), lieutenant general of the SS troops, liaison officer between Heinrich Himmler and Hitler. Born October 30, 1906 in Ansbach, Wed. Franconia. Like many others who rose to prominence under the Nazi regime, he started his career from the bottom, as an illiterate groom, then a jockey. He was lucky when he met Christian Weber, a horse lover and old friend of Hitler who had amassed a huge fortune through dubious means and connections in the Nazi Party. Under Weber's patronage, Fegelein quickly rose to the top rungs of the Nazi hierarchy. Having experience with horses, he was appointed commander of the 1st SS Mounted Cavalry Brigade ("Reiter-SS"). From May to December 1942 he was inspector of cavalry and transport of the General Directorate of Reich Security (RSHA),and on December 2, 1942 he received the rank of SS Oberführer (Brigadier General). October 30, 1943 he was wounded in action. Fegelein was then transferred to the Fuhrer's headquarters as a liaison officer for Himmler. He rose even higher in Nazi rank when he married Greta Braun, Eva Braun's sister.

In the last days of the Third Reich, Fegelein was among Hitler's inner circle in the Führerbunker. Concerned only about his own safety, on April 26, 1945, he quietly slipped away to his home in the Charlottenburg district of Berlin. The next day, Hitler discovered his disappearance and sent a group of SS men to find the fugitive. Delivered back to the office, Fegelein was immediately stripped of his military rank and placed under arrest. Fegelein's attempt to escape made Hitler suspicious of Himmler. On the evening of April 28, news came from Stockholm that Himmler was looking for ways to negotiate with the Allies behind the Fuhrer's back. Hitler was furious at this incredible news that the "faithful Himmler" had also left him at such a decisive hour. He ordered the arrest

Gsrman vegelein and Eva Braun at the Eagle's Nest near Berchtesgaden

to blame Himmler (“A traitor will never succeed the Fuhrer!”). However, deprived of the opportunity to reach the escaped Himmler, Hitler turned all his anger on Fegelein, who was in his hands. He ordered Fegelein to be brought from the guardroom and began to sharply question him about Himmler's treason. Fegelein insisted that he did not know anything about this, and stated that he was going to return to the bunker. Eva Braun, already ready for her ritual death, did not make the slightest effort to save her relative. A team of SS men led Fegelein into the courtyard of the office and shot him.

Feder, Gottfried

(Eebeg), (1883-1941), one of the first ideologists of National Socialism. He belonged to the "old fighters" (see "Alte Kempfer"), the first eco- 

comic adviser to Hitler, who eventually lost his influence in Nazi circles. Born January 27, 1883 in Würzburg. In 1905, having received an engineering degree, he settled in Munich, where he was engaged in the construction of aircraft hangars. Later he turned to political economy. By the end of World War I, he came to the conclusion that the collapse of the country's economy should be attributed to the financial and industrial tycoons of Germany. Although he advocated the preservation of the capitalist system, especially its manufacturing sector - factories, mines and machine-building enterprises, nevertheless, this path of development seemed to him not absolute, since it did not bring general profit. The idea of ​​the "advantage of forced labor" became the key point of his theoretical developments. Feder created an organization called "Deutscher Kampfbund zur Brechung der Zinsknechtschaft" (German Union for the Elimination of the Benefits of Bonded Labor). He unsuccessfully tried to interest Kurt Eisner, the communist leader of the Bavarian Revolution of 1918, with his ideas.

In early 1919, Feder became a member of the German Workers' Party, created by Anton Drexler. Among its first members were Captain Ernst Röhm, Dietrich Eckart, Franz von Ell, and later Hitler. In May 1919, when he heard Feder speak at a meeting of this tiny party, Hitler found in it a reflection of his own aspirations. He spoke about the effect produced by this speech in "Meinkampf" -.“For the first time in my life I saw the essence of international capitalism. When I heard Feder's first lecture, the thought flashed through my head that I had found the necessary prerequisites for creating a new party... The economic development of Germany has fully shown me that the hardest battles of the future will not be a struggle against hostile peoples, but a struggle against international capital. I felt the powerful prophecy of this coming battle in Feder's words." For Hitler, Feder's theories, which defined the boundary between stock exchange capital and the national economy, provided an opportunity to get involved in the struggle against the internationalization of the German economy without the threat of losing the independence of the national economy in the event of a struggle with capital. The most favorable, from Hitler's point of view, was the fact that that it was open to him to characterize international capitalism as being wholly under the control of the Jews. Soon Hitler became a member of the German Workers' Party, and Feder turned out to be his friend and teacher.

Feder, together with Drexler, Eckart and Hitler, was the author of the "25 Points" of the NSDAP program. He managed to get his concept of forced labor included in the program. From that moment Feder devoted himself to the National Socialist movement, which he considered

Hitler, Feder (left) and Goebbels on the day of their memorable visit to the Sternecker brew, where the foundation of the Nazi Party was laid in 1920

one

as a sharp contrast to modern capitalism and its "Marxist satellites". Feder wrote:

“The struggle for our lives is in the service of this powerful idea [National Socialism], the struggle for a new Germany. There will be no worthy struggle if we do not have a symbol, a battle banner! Our raging banners flutter ahead of our ranks. Forever young, shining and shining symbol - the swastika, a symbol of the newly awakening life, rises before our eyes. Our formidable banners, our eagles, carry this symbol:

“We are the army of the swastika, Wave of raging banners, We will bring the German workers

On the road to new freedom!”

Feder was the editor of the National Socialist Library, where works were collected that criticized the Dawes Plan, Freemasonry, capitalist department stores, the evil of the Jewish press, etc. He edited the journals Der Streiter (The Fighter) in Forschheim, Die Flamme ( “Flame”) in Nuremberg and “Hessenhammer” (“Hammer of Hess”) in Darmstadt. During this period, Feder was considered the most intellectual ideologue of National Socialism.

In 1923, when Hitler was released from the Landsberg prison, where he was after the Munich “Beer Putsch” of 1923,he found the party torn apart by two ideological factions. One was a populist, racist, anti-industrial faction centered around Feder. The second was an urban socialist, revolutionary faction that united around the brothers Gregor and Otto Strasser. Feder fiercely defended his point of view in the Reichstag, where he was elected in 1924, and at party meetings. On October 14, 1930, Feder submitted to the Reichstag a bill designed to freeze the 4% rate, as well as expropriate the property of those banking and stock exchange executives who were Jews. For a long time the Reichstag did not pay serious attention to such ideas, but now the Nazi Party already had 107 representatives, or almost one-third of the composition of parliament. Feder said that the party intends to create a zone of small peasant farms in the east,

By this time Hitler, single-mindedly marching towards political power, began to become convinced that Feder's populist views were not only old-fashioned, but that they could damage his own reputation on the way to supreme power. Dr. Hjalmar Schacht warned Hitler that Feder's planned economic model could undermine the German economy. The Fuhrer had a choice - either to stay with Feder's "obsolete ideas" or to accept the support of such Rhineland industrialists as the Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach and Fritz Thyssen or the Siemens company. Hitler chose the industrialists.

In July 1933, after the Nazis came to power, Feder was "rewarded" with a minor position as an assistant minister in the Ministry of Economics. In this position, he reported to Schacht's representative, Dr. Kurt Schmidt, director of Germany's largest insurance company. Feder attempted to organize a “Rurban” (from English, rgair pius urban) settlement by uniting farmers around large cities, which provoked a protest from the Reichsnerstand, the national organization of farmers. In addition, Hitler, who by this time had begun to carry out the German rearmament program and was in dire need of the favor and support of the Rhineland industrialists, began to experience serious concern about Feder's activities. In December 1934, the Fuhrer fired him from the Ministry of Economics. Unlike the “old Bolsheviks” whom Stalin got rid of, Feder was allowed to take up his personal life. He tried to convince Hitler by declaring that his ideas and theories had won millions of supporters for the party, who were now bound to disperse. Feder considered the Third Reich as a betrayal of the revolution, but he could no longer do anything. The Fuhrer left his friend. Feder died in Murnau on 24 September 1941.

Feindhörer

(EeipbGibgeg - “Enemy Listeners”), as in Germany they called those who listened to enemy radio during the 2nd World War. They were classified as "enemies of the people" and severely punished, up to and including imprisonment. In the Third Reich, denunciation of listeners of the BBC and other enemy radio stations became widespread.

Felix

(“Eiiix”), the code name for the planned German military command operation to seize Gibraltar, the Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands. In a directive dated November 12, 1940, Hitler ordered the destruction of the British military fortifications in the western Mediterranean in order to deprive the British fleet in the Atlantic of freedom of action. However, these goals were not achieved, and a month later, Operation Felix was canceled.

Felgiebel, Erich

(EІІdіеѕеІ), (1886-1944), colonel-general of the German army, participant in the conspiracy against Hitler. Born October 4, 1886 in Pöpelwitz near Breslau. In 1939-44 he served as chief of communications of the armed forces with the rank of oberst general. Not accepting Nazism, Felgibel joined the participants in the July 1944 conspiracy .

General Erich Felgiebel

assassination attempt on Hitler was among the members of the military meeting at the Fuhrer's headquarters near Rastenburg. He was arrested on charges of treason and hanged in Berlin on September 4, 1944.

“Feldherrnhalle”

(EІсІІІегпКаІІе - “Hall of Heroes”), a huge hall in the center of Munich, built in honor of German military heroes. During the events of the “Beer Putsch” of 1923, not far from the “Feldherrnhalle”, the putschists clashed with detachments of the Bavarian police.

Feldjegerkorps

(Reіsііadegkogrz), SA paramilitaries used in the early years of the Nazi movement in street clashes with the communists. They were disbanded in 1933 after Hitler came to power, after which they merged into regular police units.

"Völkischer Beobachter"

(Vёikіzsііeg Beobaсіer; VB), a daily newspaper, the official organ of the NSDAP. It was founded in 1919 on the basis of the weekly nationalist newspaper Münchener Beobachter, published before World War I. Initially published twice a week under the patronage of the Thule Society and was mainly anti-Semitic.

After the newspaper found itself in a difficult financial situation at the end of 1920, it was bought by members of the German Workers' Party DietrichEckart and Ernst Röhm, who received 60 thousand marks from the commander of the Reichswehr in Bavaria, Major General Franz von Epp and turned it into a party mouthpiece. from wealthy friends of von Epp and probably from the army budget. Other donors included Elena Bechstein, the wife of the owner of a piano manufacturing company, and Gertrud von Seydlitz, the wife of the wealthy businessman Balt. Hitler took control of the newspaper in 1921 after he became the leader of the NSDAP.

Issue of the Völkischer Beobachter, June 27, 1933. The headline reads: “Struggle Against the Baaar People’s Party”

Since February 1923 the newspaper has become a daily and larger volume. Alfred Rosenberg was the editor-in-chief of the newspaper for five years . The materials of the newspaper were nationalistic and anti-Semitic in nature, concerned with racial doctrine, it published “Protocols of the Elders of Zion”, anti-Jewish poetry by Josef Czerny, etc. Rosenberg, as editor-in-chief, sought to ensure that the newspaper became a genuine ideological tribune of National Socialism , however, he constantly ran into opposition from Max Amann,party manager and financial director of the Völkischer Beobachter, who believed that the newspaper should first of all be sensational and thus bring money to the party. “I didn’t give a damn about party members,” Aman said, “business comes first.” Their rejection of each other reached the point that scissors and inkwells were used as arguments.

At the end of September 1923, the Völkischer Beobachter attacked General Hans von Seekt, commander of the armed forces of the Weimar Republic, calling him “an enemy of the populist movement and a pawn in the hands of the Jewish-Masonic elements”, and at the same time accused him of being married to a Jewess. Enraged, von Seekt ordered General Otto von Lossow, commander of the Munich garrison, to close the newspaper, using force if necessary. However, the Commissioner General of Bavaria, Gustav von Kahr , refused to authorize such an order on the grounds that it would harm public safety. Only after the "Beer Putsch" of 1923,when Hitler was sentenced to prison, the Nazi Party and the Völkischer Beobachter newspaper were banned by the authorities.

The publication of the newspaper was resumed on February 26, 1925. On this day, the issue came out with a large editorial written by Hitler, subtitled "A New Beginning". This period was not an easy test for the unity of the Nazi Party - in party disputes between the right and left wing of the Nazi movement, Hitler was severely criticized. In August 1926, Goebbels publicly broke with Gregor and Otto Strasser, adherents of the socialist path of development of the party, loudly condemning them from the pages of the Völkischer Beobachter: “Only now I understand who you are: revolutionaries in words, not in deeds. We bow to the Fuhrer. We feel that he is greater than all of us put together, greater than you and me. He is an instrument of the divine will who shapes history with a fresh creative passion." Such flattery has become common in the pages of the newspaper, which Hitler used in his own interests to achieve political power. Hitler's articles were full of warnings about the danger to Germany if the Communists came to power instead of the National Socialists. Goebbels also did not hesitate to use the pages of the newspaper for articles in which he, in a third person, painted his own "outstanding achievements." In 1927, Goebbels founded his own organ, the newspaper"Angrif", published in Berlin. The Völkischer Beobachter came out in the morning in Munich and did not appear in the capital until twelve hours later, while the Angrif was on the streets before noon.

In 1932, the Völkischer Beobachter again experienced serious financial difficulties. The owner of the printing house, Adolf Müller, threatened several times to stop printing the newspaper if previous print runs were not paid.

Number "Völkischer Beobachter" dated February 4, 1943

The Völkischer Beobachter is ruining me,” Müller complained, “it’s good that I have a good income from Catholic newspapers.” Worried Hitler was rescued by General Kurt von Schleicher, who promised him that all NSDAP debts and printing bills would be paid from the Reichswehr budget.

From the first days of the 2nd World War, the “Volkischer Beobachter” began to excitedly describe the glorious victories of the Wehrmacht,while not worrying too much about reliability. For example, the issue of October 23, 1939 came out with a huge headline: “Churchill sank the Athena.” When events took a completely unfavorable turn for Hitler, the Völkischer Beobachter made desperate attempts to raise the morale of the German people. In the issue of May 24, 1944, Goebbels stated : “Germany must become more devastated than the Sahara.” On September 7, 1944, Hitler wrote hysterically: “Not a single German stalk of wheat will go to the enemy, not a single German mouth will give him information, not a single German hand will help him. the bridge will be destroyed before him, every road blocked—nothing but death, extermination and hatred will meet him.” The Völkischer Beobachter died with Hitler and the Third Reich in 1945.

Femegerichte

(EgitedepsMe), underground secret courts during the period of the Weimar Republic, consisting of members of far-right paramilitary organizations, committed arbitrary acts at their own discretion and fought political opponents by physical elimination.

Flick, Friedrich

(Eіsk), (1883-?), German industrialist, one of the first to provide financial support to the Nazi movement. Born July 10, 1883 in Ernsdorf, Westphalia. In 1913, he began working in the iron and steel industry and quickly rose to the position of one of the richest and most powerful men in Germany. In 1932, Flick's company contributed 950,000 Reichsmarks to the re-election campaign of President Paul von Hindenburg and at the same time donated 50,000 Reichsmarks to the Nazis. movement. The following year, Flick gave 100,000 Reichsmarks to the Nationalist People's Party and 120,000 Reichsmarks to Hitler's party. At the same time, he joined the NSDAP. flick was one of the closest friends of Heinrich Himmler, whose members contributed a lot to various activities of the SS. In April 1947, together with Gustav Kruppand Fritz Thyssen flick was tried by a military tribunal on charges of aiding Hitler and the rise of the Nazis to power. Separately, he was accused of using forced labor in his many enterprises. After that, Flikgruppe lost most of its assets, but soon restored them.

Multi-purpose aircraft "Fockewulf 190"

Flossenbürg

(Elosweinigd), a small concentration camp located in the district of Neustadt, Upper Bavaria. In the 15th century, this territory was acquired by the Wittelsbach dynasty. At the end of 1940, Flossenbürg was elected by the SS medical commission to select prisoners for special medical experiments. On August 24, 1942, the commandant of Flossenbürg, SS Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) Kunstler, was removed from his post for drunkenness.

“fockewulf-190”

(EVV-190), a German fighter, which was in service with the German army. Its mass production began in 1941. After the Messerschmitt-109 was discontinued, which had performed poorly during the Battle of Britain,The Fockewulf-190 turned out to be the most effective machine of the German Luftwaffe. The design of the aircraft was the last word in aircraft construction. "EVV-190 A-8" had an air-cooled engine with a capacity of 1700 liters. with., wingspan 11 meters, maximum speed up to 700 km / h, armament - 2 13-mm machine guns and 4 20-mm cannons. Later, it was possible to further increase the speed of the aircraft, which quickly demonstrated its advantage over the British Spitfire, making quick turns in which wings fell off other types of fighters. In June 1942, one of the Luftwaffe pilots landed his emergency EVB-190 almost intact on British soil. Having studied the design features of the EVV-190, the British specialists copied most of its key parts and soon offered the Hawker Fary fighter for production,

Volkman, Helmut

(Voiktapp), (1889-1940), general of the German army, commander of the Condor Legion. Born February 28, 1889 in Dedenhofen. After graduating from a cadet school, March 4, 1907 joined the Imperial Army. Volkmann was promoted to lieutenant colonel on October 1, 1932. On April 1, 1934, Volkmann was appointed head of department in the Reichswehr ministry, and then, with the rank of colonel, he moved to the Luftwaffe.

From October 6, 1936 to November 1937, Volkmann was the head of the administrative department of the Luftwaffe with the rank of major general. On November 1, 1937, he replaced Hugo Sperrle as commander of the Condor Legion in Spain, holding this post until October 31, 1938. From April to September 1939, he headed the Luftwaffe Military Academy. Then he was transferred to the Wehrmacht. August 25, 1939 he was awarded the title

“If you save five marks a week, you will own your own car” - this appeal was addressed to those who wanted to have their own “Volkswagen”

nie general of the infantry. In 1940 he took command of the 95th Infantry Division. Died in a car accident on August 21, 1940.

Volkswagen

(“Voikzѵvadep” - “People's Car”), a cheap, small car, which, as Hitler promised, would eventually become available to every German. was used as a genuine people's car, but served entirely for the needs of the army during World War 2. Nazi propaganda sought to turn the Volkswagen into a symbol of the working class, personifying the protest against bourgeois values.At the same time, the Volkswagen program was a means for the receipt of money in the treasury at the expense of weekly contributions from those wishing to purchase a car in the future, citizens of Germany.

After the collapse of the Third Reich and the restoration of the German economy, Volkswagen began to be produced on a huge scale, not only in Germany, but also in factories in many countries, becoming one of the most popular cars in the world. Sometimes Hitler is remembered as the man “who created Volkswagen”.

Volksgemeinschaft

(voikzdeteipzsyay - "racial unity"), the National Socialist ideological idea of ​​the racial superiority of the Germans and their harmonious unity.

Volksdeutsche

(voikzgieizissie, "ethnic Germans"), a Nazi classification of persons who belonged to the Germanic race and lived in many European countries. The Nazi authorities constantly called for cooperation or return to the Reich "Volksdeutsche", never tired of repeating about their "blood unity" with the Germans living in Germany. See also Racial Doctrine.

“Volksdeutsche mittel stelle”

(VOIKZBEIESE MіNEIBIEІІІE; VOMI), one of the five main departments of the SS, which carried out a variety of work among ethnic Germans living abroad. It was created on February 1, 1937. SS Obergruplenführer Werner Lorenz headed the department. The sphere of activity of this organization extended mainly to the countries neighboring Germany, where it carried out intelligence and subversive work, carried out ideological indoctrination of the population, and formed “fifth columns”. The press section of this department prepared daily reviews of materials published in more than 300 newspapers and magazines published abroad, and also engaged in penetrating the foreign press and forming a favorable opinion about Nazism through anti-communist newspapers in Austria, France, Belgium and other countries. After the outbreak of World War II, this department also carried out a program of resettlement to the occupied eastern territories of the German population, which was led by the Reichskommissar for the resettlement of the German race, Heinrich Himmler, who was appointed on October 7, 1939. The creation of the Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle meant the transfer into the hands of the SS of the most important instrument of influence on the foreign policy of the Third Reich.

Volkslist

(voikziіzizi), a special document issued to ethnic Germans living in the territory of the countries occupied by Germany. First introduced by decree in the General Government (in Poland) in 1941, later extended to other occupied territories. Certified various categories of ethnic Germans: persons entitled to citizenship in the Third Reich; persons considered to be naturalized Germans; persons who have received temporary citizenship. See also Racial Doctrine.

Volksschedlinge

(voikzzsnabіpde), German citizens declared enemies of the people during the 2nd World War. Prosecuted for various minor offences. At the end of the war, the destruction of the “enemies of the people” was carried out by the SS. For example, in October 1944, 17 postal employees in Vienna, who were seen stealing chocolate and soap from army parcels, were marched through the streets of the city and publicly executed in the city park. The “enemies of the people” included the so-called. "feindhörer" - those who listened to banned foreign radio, such as the BBC or Moscow Radio.

Volkssturm

(Voikzzigt), a German militia created on the initiative of Himmler and Goebbels for the last defense of the Third Reich in the winter of 1944-45. "Volkssturm" was recruited from among the Germans, for one reason or another unfit for military service, aged 16 to 60 years. By Hitler's decree of September 25, 1944, the first battalions were formed, which were considered auxiliary detachments of the local police. In the last days of the Third Reich, Volkssturm units, untrained and poorly armed, were thrown against the advancing Allied regular troops and turned, in fact, into “cannon fodder”.

Forster, Albert

(Gogsieg), (1902-?), Gauleiter of the Free City of Danzig. Later he worked in the city administration. He had the rank of SS Gruppenfuehrer (Lieutenant General). April 28, 1948 Forster was sentenced to death by the Gdansk court, later commuted to life imprisonment.

Hitler surrounded by Bormann and Gauleiter Danzig Forster (to the right of the Fuhrer) after the annexation of this land to Germany on the first day of World War II.

Frank, Anna

(Egapk), (1929-1945), a Jewish girl who with her family hid from the Gestapo in Amsterdam for two years anddied in the Belsen concentration camp. Born in Frankfurt am Main on June 12, 1929 in the family of an entrepreneur. Her childhood passed in a cozy atmosphere, surrounded by the love of parents, sisters and relatives. In the summer of 1933 her family left Frankfurt and moved to Amsterdam, where Otto Frank founded a food company. For centuries, the Netherlands has given refuge to the persecuted. The Dutch received the German Jews just as they received the French Huguenots in the sixteenth century and the English Puritans in the seventeenth. The Germans occupied Holland in 1940 and soon began to carry out anti-Jewish activities. In February 1941, the Nazi authorities began rounding up Amsterdam Jews to deport them to German concentration camps. Dutch friends of the Frank family set up a secret outbuilding in the upstairs rooms, which served as a shelter for them for two years.

On August 4, 1944, agents of the Gestapo arrested the inhabitants of the extension on a denunciation. The surviving Otto Frank later wrote: “The SS man pulled out a briefcase and asked if there were jewels in it. I replied that there were only papers. He threw Anna's papers and diaries on the floor, pulled out our silverware and candlestick used during the Hanukkah celebration, and put everything in his briefcase. If he had taken the diary with him, then no one would have heard of my daughter.” Anna was later sent to a concentration camp in Belsen, where she died in March 1945, only a few months before the end of the war.

The Diary of Anne Frank was published after the war and immediately became a sensation. Subsequently, the book was translated into 32 languages, and later received a film and theatrical incarnation. The conscience of the world was awakened by the tragic story of an ordinary Jewish girl, with a warm feeling

Anne Frank

a powerful soul who described the vicissitudes of human destiny in the midst of danger, in the face of hunger and the constant threat of discovery, boredom, quarrels - all the cruelty and tenderness of human nature. Anne Frank's diary became a denunciation of the inhuman nature of Nazism.

Frank, Hans

(Egapk), (1900-1946), Hitler's lawyer, Reichsleiter, head of the Reich Legal Department, later Governor-General of occupied Poland. Born May 23, 1900 in Karlsruhe. In his youth, he served only one year during the 1st World War. After the war, he joined one of the units of the "Volunteer Corps". In April 1919, he took part in street battles with the communists, who proclaimed the Bavarian Socialist Republic in Munich. In the same year he joined the German Workers' Party, and after its transformation - into the NSDAP. Franc

Hans Frank

took part in the "Beer putsch" 1923in the ranks of the SA attack aircraft. In 1926, having received a law degree, he began advocacy in Munich, where he defended brownshirts arrested for participating in street battles with the communists (in 1925-1933, more than 40 thousand such trials took place). At one of these court hearings, Hitler was called as a witness, who told the court about the patriotic and selfless motives of his Nazi followers and promised. that "heads will roll when he legally takes power from the hands of the degenerate rulers of the Weimar Republic." After that, Hitler invited Frank as a personal lawyer and put him in charge of the legal department of the NSDAP. The young lawyer represented Hitler at 150 trials. Frank was also instructed to conduct a secret investigation to prove that Hitler had no Jewish blood. From 1930 Frank was a member of the German Reichstag. After Hitler came to power, Frank held many high positions: Minister of Justice of Bavaria, Reich Minister of Justice and Reich Minister without Portfolio (1934). He was in his early thirties when he became a Reichsleiter of the NSDAP, president of the German Law Academy, founder of the German Law Institute, and president of the International Chamber of Law.

On October 12, 1939, after the occupation of Poland, Hitler appointed Frank the head of the administration for the affairs of the population of the occupied Polish territory, and then the governor-general of Poland. Frank described his policy as follows: “Poland should be treated like a colony. The Poles will become slaves of the Greater German Empire.” Frank methodically destroyed Poland as a national entity and exploited its human and material resources in the interests of Germany, seeking to turn it into an appendage of the Nazi state. Frank declared German the official language; he warned that Jews and Poles would be sentenced to death for the slightest opposition to the Germans or for damaging the social order; carried out the confiscation of Jewish and Polish property; confiscated art treasures from Polish museums for his own house in Schliersee, in southern Germany; allowed to secretly export from Poland to Germany a huge amount of food. At a time when much of Europe was starving, Frank hosted gourmet dinners at the governor's palace in Krakow. By December 1942, over 85% of Polish Jews were sent to them in “campsof death".

Appearing before the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg after the fall of the Third Reich, Frank announced his conversion to Catholicism, humbly admitted his guilt and asked for forgiveness from the Lord. The man who sent thousands of helpless people to their deaths fought desperately for his life. “I consider this court,” he said, “the world court of God’s will, designed to sort out and end the terrible era of suffering under Adolf Hitler.” He reviled Hitler as a traitor to the faith and hope of millions of Germans. Frank said, "The testimonies I heard in the courtroom shocked me." The court found him guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Frank was hanged at Nuremberg on October 16, 1946.

Frankfurt Process

The trial of senior SS officers who "worked" in the "death camp" Auschwitz, which took place from December 20, 1963 to August 20, 1965 in Frankfurt am Main. Also known as the Auschwitz process. The longest of all German courts. Robert Karl Mulka and the other accused SS men came mainly from middle-class backgrounds, eight of them had university degrees. Most pleaded not guilty:

“I knew only one way to behave: to obey the orders of the senior guards without reservation” (Boger). “I didn’t participate in anything” (Höcker). “I believed the Fuhrer and tried to serve my people” (Stark). “I really wanted to sweeten as many Jewish lives as possible” (Dr. Lucas). “Not a single person died at my hands” (Huntl).

The testimonies of the witnesses revealed the following picture:

The barracks were stables designed for 500 people, in which 1200 prisoners were stuffed.

Secretaries worked day and night. Death reports were made on 7 typewriters per shift.

The SS jailers made a fortune out of the jewels that belonged to their victims.

The main concern of the guards was that "newborn babies should immediately have numbers tattooed on their thighs, since the babies' arms were too small."

The Jewish prisoners in the courtyard of the crematorium walked in circles in front of the doctor, who made a selection for life or death, hoping to read the slightest desire on his face.

Women and children were on their knees crying: “Have pity, have pity on us!”

Mothers went to the gas chamber with their children.

Above the front gate, through which the newly arrived prisoners passed, hung the slogan: “Akbey Masy Ggei” (“Work makes free”).

Results of the Frankfurt Process - see overleaf.

Frauenschaften

(PraiepssnaYen), women's national socialist organization. Created on October 1, 1931 with the aim of uniting all women in Germany after the Nazis came to power in a single National Socialist Front. Frauenshaften's mission was to educate German women in the spirit of National Socialism, patriotism and motherhood.

Freiburg group

One of the organizations opposed to Nazism, consisting of teachers from the University of Freiburg, headed by historian Gerhard Ritter. Members of the group considered Hitler and the Nazi regime a disgrace to Germany. They criticized Hitler's nihilism, condemned him for apostasy and misleading the masses. Nazism, they argued, had no roots in German history, but rather stemmed from the French Revolution. The members of the group adhered to a strong nationalist direction: while supporting Dietrich Bonhoeffer and other opponents of Hitler, they nevertheless did not allow the thought that their homeland could be defeated in the 2nd World War - They also rejected the activities of other resistance groups, such as "Red Chapel"accusing them of handing over military secrets and aiding the Soviet Union.

Freideburg, Hans Georg von

(Egeіsіеbіgd), (1895-1945), admiral, last commander-in-chief of the German navy. Born July 15, 1895 in Strasbourg. In 1914 he joined the Imperial Navy as a cadet, and in 1917 he moved to serve in the submarine fleet (see Submarine fleet in the Third Reich). In 1933 he was promoted to lieutenant commander, and the following year, at the request of Heinrich Himmler, he was appointed to the headquarters of the fleet command. For 8 days, from May 1 to May 9, 1945, Freudeburg was

Table 5. Outcomes of the Frankfurt Process

Defendant's name	Year of birth	Position in Auschwitz	Accusation	Sentence
Stefan Baretsky	1919	block commandant	5 murders, 11 joint murders, complicity in the death of 3 thousand people	life imprisonment plus 5 years hard labor
Bednarek Emil	1907	a prisoner	14 kills	hard labor for life
Boger Wilhelm	1906	camp Gestapo	144 murders, 10 joint murders, complicity in the death of 1000 prisoners	life imprisonment plus 5 years to hard labor
Breitweiser Johann	1910	disinfection department	—	justified
Broad Percy	1921	camp Gestapo	22 joint murders, complicity in the death of 1000 CHYAKPYUCHRMNNH	4 years hard labor
Hoffmann Franz	1906	supervisory officer	1 murder, 30 joint killings, complicity in the deaths of 750 people	hard labor for life
Dilevski Klaus	1916	camp security	complicity in the murder of 32 prisoners, involvement in the death of 750 people	5 years hard labor
Caduc Oswald	—	head of the roll call	10 murders, complicity in the deaths of 1,000 people	hard labor for life
Capesius Victor	1907	head of the camp hospital	complicity in the murder of 4 people, involvement in the death of 2000 prisoners	9 years hard labor
Claire Joseph	1904	medical management	475убийств	life imprisonment plus 15 years hard labor
Lukas Franc	1911	camp medical officer	complicity in the murder of 1,000 prisoners	bot 3 years and 3 months hard labor
Mulka Robert Karl	1895	Deputy Camp Commandant Höss	complicity in the murder of 750 prisoners	14 years hard labor
Nubert Gerhard	—	—	case adjourned due to illness	—
Frank Willy	1903	chief of the dental post	complicity in 6 murders and complicity in the death of 1000 people	1 year hard labor
Huntl Emil	1902	medical management	complicity in 40 murders and complicity in the death of 170 people	3 years and 6 months hard labor
Hacker Carl	—	camp commandant's adjutant	complicity in the murder of 1000 people	7 years hard labor
Schatz Willy	1905	dental post	—	justified
Schobert Johann	—	—	—	justified
Sherpe Gerbert	—■	medical management	complicity in the murder of 700 people	4 years and 6 months hard labor
Schlage Bruno	1902	security officer	complicity in the murder of 70 people	6 years hard labor
Stark Hans	1921	camp Gestapo	joint murder of 44 people, involvement in the murder of 200 people, complicity in the murder of 100 people	10 years

commander-in-chief of the naval forces. In this position, he was one of the signatories of the unconditional surrender of Germany in Reims on May 7, 1945. He committed suicide on May 23, 1945 in Myurvin.

Freisler, Roland

(Preizieg), (1893-1945), chairman of the People's Tribunalin Berlin from 1942 to 1945, "judge-hanger". Born October 30, 1893 in Celle in an old farming family. He served as a volunteer during the 1st World War, was a prisoner in Russia (in Siberia) for 5 years and was even a member of the RCP (b). He learned Russian, but developed the greatest hatred of communism. Pretending to be a fanatical Bolshevik, Freisler managed to escape and returned to Germany in 1920. He studied at the Faculty of Law at the University of Jena, from 1923 he practiced law in Kassel. After serving in the city government of a socialist orientation, in 1925 he joined the Nazis and connected with them all his later life. In 1932 he was elected a member of the Prussian Landtag from the National Socialist Party, and the following year a member of the Reichstag from the constituency of Hesse-Nassau. At the same time, he headed the Prussian Ministry of Justice. May 29, 1934 was appointed Secretary of State with special responsibilities to combat sabotage. January 20, 1940 participated inthe Wannsee Conference in Berlin, which discussed the extermination of European Jews (see "Final Solution").

From 1942 to 1945, Freisler headed the People's Tribunal, the most brutal tribunal in the Third Reich. In this post, he applied in practice the experience of Soviet Russia in the liquidation of the “old Bolsheviks”. Astute and cold-blooded, he was a ruthless judge, sending to the gallows all the defendants without exception. He was especially vindictive towards the leaders of the July 1944 conspiracy. On February 3, 1945, presiding over the next trial of traitors, Freisler was killed by a bomb dropped from an American aircraft.

Frick, Wilhelm

(Egisk), (1877-1946), Reichsleiter, head of the NSDAP deputy group in the Reichstag, lawyer, one of Hitler's closest friends in the early years of the struggle for power. Born March 12, 1877 in Alzenz in the family of a school teacher. He studied at the law faculties of the Munich, Göttingen and Berlin universities, received his doctorate in Heidelberg. In 1912 he began his legal practice in Munich. Due to weak lungs, Frick did not participate in the 1st World War. In 1919-23 he headed the Munich police department and the criminal investigation department (until 1925). Frick met Hitler when he asked him for permission to hold a political rally in Munich. Infused with Nazi ideology, Frick became Hitler's confidant in the police department. On at least one occasion, he ensured that Hitler was released after his arrest. AT"Mein Kampf" Hitler wrote that among his acquaintances there were only two people - Frick and the former chief of the city police Ernst Pöhner, both staunch right-wingers who hate communists, "who had the courage to be first a German, and only then an official."

Shortly before the "Beer Putsch" of 1923 , Hitler instructed Frick and Pöhner to seize the police headquarters for the rebels. Frick, who was next to Hitler during the march through the streets of Munich, was arrested and was under investigation for 4 months. He was eventually sentenced to 15 months in prison. However, the sentence was overturned in 1924, and Frick returned to his official duties in the police department. In the same year he was elected to the Reichstag as a member of the Nazi Party.

В 1930, после того как НСДАП сумела возвратить шесть членов в Тюринг- ский ландтаг, Фрик был назначен министром внутренних дел Тюрингии, и стал первым нацистом, занявшим важный пост в провинции. В этом качестве он превратил Тюрингию в очаг оппозиции социал-демократическому правительству в Берлине. Фрик избавлялся от офицеров полиции, которых подозревал в симпатиях к республиканскому правительству, вводил государственные должности для нацистских кандидатур и заполнял полицейский штат нацистами. Действия Фрика привели к конфликту с министром внутренних дел Германии социал-демократом Карлом Зеверингом, который угрожал лишить финансовой поддержки тюрингскую полицию в случае, если Фрик не прекратит свою противозаконную деятельность. В ответ на это Фрик пообещал полностью распустить полицию и создать силы правопорядка, состоящие исключительно из штурмовиков СА. После того, как лейпцигский суд обязал Берлин продолжать финансирование, стало ясно, что победа оказалась на стороне Фрика.

Frick's work in Thuringia, which anticipated his future work as Reich Minister of the Interior, earned him the praise of Hitler and the recognition of the Nazis. On his orders, those convicted of murdering Nazis were released from prison. He banned the demonstration of the anti-war film “All Quiet on the Western Front” (based on the novel by Erich Maria Remarque), which was passed by the Berlin censors. He allowed the publication of Nazi newspapers to resume. Created a special chair of social anthropology at the University of Jena for the Nazi professor Hans Günther,intellectual champion of racism. At the same university, he attended the inaugural speech of Hitler, whom in his opening speech he compared with the greatest German poet Schiller. Frick introduced obligatory prayers in Thuringian schools glorifying National Socialism and Hitler.

After becoming Chancellor, Hitler appointed Frick as Reich Minister of the Interior. Frick zealously set to work, immediately declaring that the majority of judges and lawyers in Berlin were Jews. He dissolved the Bavarian government and installed the Nazi regime there. On March 31, 1933, using the Law on Emergency Powers, Frick dissolved the parliaments of all states except Prussia, and ordered the formation of new ones based on the ratio of deputies from different factions in the Reichstag. This meant that there would be no more communists in the Landtags. On June 19, 1933, he issued an order prohibiting the activities of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. Frick was careful to ensure that all newly appointed Reichsstathalters without exception were Nazis. On April 7, 1933, he supported the draft Law on the restoration of the civil service (essentially removing all objectionable persons from official positions). September 15, 1935 participated in the compilationThe Nuremberg laws on citizenship and race, restricting the rights of Jews in Germany, forbidding them to marry Germans and placing them in the position of second-class citizens. By this time, on the orders of Frick, at least 100 thousand people had already been sent to concentration camps.

The International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg held Frick responsible for bringing Germany under Nazi rule. He was accused of drafting, signing and enforcing a number of laws prohibiting political parties and trade unions, creating a system of concentration camps, encouraging the activities of the Gestapo, persecuting Jews and militarizing the German economy. He was found guilty on counts 2 (crimes against peace), 3 (war crimes) and 4 (crimes against humanity). On October 16, 1946, Frick was hanged in Nuremberg.

Fritsche, Hans

(Egііgzsііе), (1900-1953), head of radio propaganda of the Ministry of Education and Propaganda, headed by Paul Joseph Goebbels Born April 21, 1900 in Bochum, Westphalia, in the family of a postal employee. After graduating from a humanitarian gymnasium in Leipzig, he served as a private at the end of World War I. After the war, he studied history, economics, and philosophy at several universities, but did not complete his Ph.D.

In 1923 he became the editor of the monthly magazine Prosvissbe ZabgbisKer. In 1924-32 he was editor of the Telegraph Agency and editor-in-chief of the International News Service, one of the departments of Hugenberg's huge publishing empire . In 1932 he was appointed head of the German Radio News Service.

On May 1, 1933, Goebbels, in need of loyal and capable reporters, put Fritsche in charge of the news service of the press department of the propaganda ministry. Fritsche's main duty was to explain to the German editors what they should publish. In November 1942 he left the press department and became head of the broadcasting department, one of the 12 departments of the ministry; his position was called “plenipotentiary representative of the political organization of the Great German Radio”. Fritsche got an audience of listeners sitting in front of 16 million radios. The broadcasts of his radio station began with the words “Nieg srgіssi Napz RgI / all!” (“Hans Fritsche speaking!”). He became the most popular commentator of the Third Reich. His clear guttural voice and carefully chosen arguments attracted the attention of the Germans, who were fed up with ordinary Nazi orators. Although Goebbels and Fritsche were engaged in the same business - propaganda indoctrination of the German population, close comradely relations never arose between them. Goebbels admired the work of his subordinate, but never him personally.

In addition to his work at the news radio station, Fritsche, as head of the German Press Service, was responsible for the international telegraph services and for nearly 2,000 daily newspapers and magazines. All these media were subordinated to the Nazi politi kegleichschaltung carried out by Hitler. Fritsche often led meetings for several hundred representatives of the most influential German newspapers, met with journalists in order to bring them to the official Nazi propaganda line.

Like Goebbels, Fritsche used in his work the main postulates of Hitler's ideology, expressed in Mein Kampf:conspiracy of world Jewry, plutocratic democracy, Bolshevik danger, living space and the Fuhrer principle. Even on the eve of World War II, Fritsche sang panegyrics to the Fuhrer's genius. No one in German history, he argued, provided the Empire with such vast territory and prestige as Hitler in a mere five years. And all this, added Fritsche, the Fuhrer did without firing a shot. The greatness of Germany was destroyed by the "paper tigers" of Versailles, but he managed to restore Germany's position in Europe. In the early years of World War II, Fritsche reported on the dazzling victories of the Third Reich; later he faced the far more difficult task of rousing German morale at a time of bitter setbacks. “Every German is under threat, not only from the Russians, but also from the West.” Fritsche quoted the London News Chronicle: "We are for the destruction of all life in Germany - men, women, children, birds and insects." He was at the microphone until the last hours of the war.

Appearing before the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in 1946, Fritsche admitted that he was mistaken in his assessment of Hitler and Nazism and that he eventually came to the realization that the Führer had decided to exterminate not only the Jews, but also the German people. “This is the most terrible sentence of all times and peoples. Only one thing is even more terrible: the sentence to the German people is insulting to their idealism.” The court took into account his justifications: “From the materials it is clear that Fritsche sometimes made strong statements of a propagandistic nature in his broadcasts. But the tribunal does not consider that they were aimed at inciting the German people to commit atrocities against the conquered peoples, and it cannot be said that there was participation in the crimes. October 1, 1946 Fritsche was found not guilty.

On February 4, 1947, Fritsche appeared before the German Denazification Court on charges of inciting anti-Semitism and giving the Germans deliberately false information with incitement to continue the struggle after the lost war. He was released from investigation on September 29, 1950. Fritsche died in Cologne on September 27, 1953, convinced that he faithfully served his country.

Fritsch, Werner von

(EgіІзсь), (1880-1939), Colonel-General, Commander-in-Chief of the German Land Forces in 1935-38. Born August 4, 1880 in Benrath. At the age of 18, he joined the army, having shown high qualities, he attracted the attention of senior officers of the General Staff. In 1901, when Fritsch was only 21 years old, he was invited to the Military Academy. In 1911, with the rank of 1st lieutenant, he was appointed to a responsible post in the General Staff. During the Weimar Republic he served in the Reichswehr. Like his colleague Werner von Blomberg,Fritsch was a staunch supporter of good neighborly relations with Soviet Russia. Calm, patient, conscious of his duty, Fritsch was only interested in military service. He had little contact with women and was never married. In 1930 he commanded a cavalry division in Frankfurt an der Oder and became one of the leading officers of the General Staff. In July 1932, Fritsch was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general.

General Baron von Fritsch

The coming of the Nazis to power, the lawlessness of Hitler's associates, the suppression of civil liberties in the country had a strong impact on Fritsch, but he still refrained from open criticism of the regime. What worried him most was that Hitler's anti-Bolshevik attacks might lead to an unwanted war with the Soviet Union. In 1934, Fritsch was appointed commander of the ground forces, and in 1935 - commander in chief. Together with von Blomberg, he participated in the creation of the new German armed forces - the Wehrmacht. November 5, 1937 Fritsch attended the Hossbach meeting,at which Hitler laid out his aggressive intentions. Fritsch was shocked by Hitler's plans to start a war at a time when the army was not ready for it. Hitler did not forgive him for dissent. After the accusation of homosexual inclinations fabricated by Goering and Himmler, Fritsch was forced to resign on February 4, 1938. General Walther von Brauchitsch took his place. The officers' court of honor completely acquitted Fritsch, he was again drafted into the army on the eve of World War II. Fritsch died in a battle near Warsaw on September 22, 1939. Eyewitnesses claimed that Colonel General Fritsch was specifically looking for death on the battlefield.

See also Blomberg Fritsch, case.

Fromm, Friedrich

(Egott), (1888-1945), Commander-in-Chief of the German Reserve Army and Chief of Armaments from September 1, 1939 to July 20, 1944. Born October 8, 1888 in Berlin Career officer. He was well aware of the July 1944 conspiracy against Hitler, but did not take an active part in it, although he realized that the war was lost, and Hitler was leading the country to disaster.

On July 20, 1944, Fromm was at the headquarters of the War Office on Bendlerstrasse when reports were received of an assassination attempt on Hitler at headquarters near Rastenburg. Although

General Friedrich Fromm

the chief of staff of the Reserve Army, Colonel Klaus Schenck, Count von Stauffenberg , who arrived from the headquarters , assured Fromm that Hitler had been killed by a bomb planted by him, Fromm called the headquarters and found out from Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel,that the attempt failed and the Fuhrer is alive. Fromm immediately disowned his subordinate and ordered the arrest of Stauffenberg. The latter coldly remarked: “General Fromm. I personally planted this bomb. No one could have survived in that room.” Fromm replied: “Count Stauffenberg, the attempted terrorist attack has failed. You should shoot yourself right now.” Stauffenberg refused. Hoping to save his own life, Fromm ordered the immediate execution of Stauffenberg and the three officers accompanying him. However, this did not save Fromm himself. Soon he was arrested by officers loyal to Hitler and brought before the People's Tribunal as a participant in the conspiracy. On charges of treason, Fromm was executed in March 1945.

Frontbann

(Underground Front), one of the illegal military organizations of SA stormtroopers, which operated in Bavaria after the failure of the Beer putsch in 1923.

"Fronterlebnis"

(Propіeglеbpіz - "Front experience"), a literary genre in German prose, which was entrenched after the 1st World War. The novelists of this trend in an idealized form presented their own front-line impressions, soldier camaraderie, front-line fraternity, sang the war as a way of spiritual purification of the Aryan soldier. A sentimental mixture of nationalism and sensuality, the works of this genre were especially revered by the Nazi authorities as consistent with their ideological concepts.

“Frühlingserwachen”

(Egcyііpdzegѵѵаііep — “Spring Awakening”), the code name for the military operation, the purpose of which was to defeat the Soviet Army in Hungary in the spring of 1945. The German counteroffensive was scheduled for March 17, 1945, at the moment when the Soviet troops launched large-scale offensive operations. Operation Fryulingserwachen did not produce the expected results, since the Soviet army returned within a day the entire territory that the Germans had captured for two weeks before that. After that, Soviet troops moved to Austria.

Fuhrer

(Pieberer - leader, leader), a title given by Hitler, designed to denote his role as the supreme leader of the Third Reich and the Nazi Party. It was the equivalent of "Duce" - the title of Benito Mussolini, head of the Italian fascists, and "caudillo" - the title of General Francisco Franco, the head of the Spanish state and commander in chief of the army.

Führer, cult

The practice of creating the image of a leader endowed with superhuman qualities that existed in the Third Reich. Nazi propaganda constantly inspired the German people that their Fuhrer was an outstanding personality, strong-willed, without complexes and human weaknesses: he does not smoke, does not drink alcohol, is a vegetarian, a convinced bachelor, not bound by the bonds of love or friendship, completely giving himself to the service of the nation. The people were presented with an idol, whose greatness was worthy of admiration.

Nazi salute "Heil Hitler!" became mandatory for all German citizens, from civil servants to bus conductors.Children were required to reprimand their parents if they forgot to greet each other with the Hitler salute. Goebbels Some of his passages were: "We are witnessing the greatest miracle in history. Genius creates the world!" "We heard his voice when Germany was asleep. Thanks to him, we became a nation again. His will brought us back to the Fatherland. We give our whole life without a trace to the Fuhrer!" "He alone is never wrong. He is always right. It is amazing how great the Fuhrer is in his simplicity and how simple in his greatness. He is above all of us. He is always like a beautiful star above us."

The rest of the Nazi leaders did not lag behind in praise of their great leader. Rudolf Hess used biblical motifs: “And a child was born in Braunau...” His panegyrics bordered on hysteria: “What he does is necessary, whatever he does is necessary, he succeeds in everything ... Undoubtedly, he was blessed Lord."

Head of the German Labor Front Robert W7ey: "God sent us Adolf Hitler."

The church fathers went to blasphemy for the sake of the Fuhrer: "The Lord was incarnated not in Jesus Christ, but in Adolf Hitler."

Special efforts were made to draw the attention of young people to the Fuhrer. One of the posters of the Hitler Youth read: “We all believe in Adolf Hitler, our leader. We believe that National Socialism is the only creed for our people. We believe that there is a Lord who created us, leads and guides and we

"Hitler and God", a painting by Tau sta

Otto Hoyer, “In the beginning was the word”, 1937

we believe that it was God who sent us Adolf Hitler to make Germany the cornerstone of eternity.”

Portraits and photographs of Hitler could be seen everywhere: in school classrooms, institutions, railway stations, street intersections. Wherever the German went, his leader looked at him from everywhere. Postcards depicted him as Siegfried, soaring majestically in the air and smashing terrible enemies.

Forms of admiration for Hitler resembled the symptoms of paranoia. When during the Nuremberg Party Congressesthe sun was peeking out from behind the clouds, the crowd was delighted and shouted: “The weather of the Fuhrer!” German women hailed Hitler as Adonis; hysterical cries rang over their heads: “Beautiful Adolf!” He received thousands of letters from women who wanted to give birth to a child from him. The cult of the Fuhrer so penetrated the female consciousness that women in his presence fainted with delight. When the newspapers published a picture of Hitler leaning into the hand of actress Olga Chekhova at the reception, the reaction was incredible. The actress received letters in bags: “What a joy to know that you are marrying Adolf Hitler!” “He finally met his true love!” “Make him happy - he deserves it!” A certain enthusiastic admirer of the Fuhrer seriously claimed that her dog could pronounce the words “Adolf Hitler”,

The war brought new colors to the cult of the Fuhrer. Goebbels hailed Hitler as the greatest general of all time. The Fuhrer's voice heard on the radio raised the morale of the soldiers at the front. The most popular slogan coined by Goebbels was: "Hitler is victory!" There were rumors all over the country that when the Allied aircraft bombed a house, the wall on which the portrait of Hitler hung survived. In response to Goebbels' call, millions of Germans lit candles in "Hitler corners" in their homes. The news of Hitler's death on April 30, 1945 caused a wave of suicides. Thousands of heartbroken people shed tears. Many Germans refused to believe in Hitler's death or hoped that he would rise like a phoenix from the ashes of Berlin.

In the era of dictatorship, the exaltation of Hitler was not unique. Benito Mussolini in fascist Italy and Joseph Stalin in the USSR were also endowed with superhuman qualities, turning into a symbol of a totalitarian state. The cult of personality was created deliberately and was designed for the painful aspects of the human psyche, which allowed one person to manipulate millions of compatriots, leaving no room for dissent.

Fuhrerbunker

(Giebgegbunkeg), located under the Reich Chancellery in Berlin, an underground bunker in which Hitler spent the last days of his life, April 20-30, 1945. It was located at a depth of 17 meters underground. Had two floors. The top floor had six rooms in each wing. There was a dining room, guest rooms, a kitchen and other rooms. There were 17 rooms on the lower floor, which were occupied by Hitler, Goebbels and Dr. Ludwig Stumpfegger. There were bathrooms, bedrooms, a telephone exchange, security rooms, a reception room, etc. Four emergency exits led to the garden of the Reich Chancellery.

From April 22 to May 1, 1945 in the Fuhrerbunker were:

Axmann, Arthur, Reichsugendleiter, Albrecht, SS Brigadeführer, Bauer, Hans, SS Gruppenfuehrer, Hitler's personal pilot,

Belov, Nikolaus von, communications officer, assistant to General Burgdorf,

Bitz, SS-Standartenführer, Hitler's second personal pilot,

Boldt, communications officer, adjutant of Major Freitag-Loringhoven,

Bormann, Martin, Hitler's deputy,

Brown, Eva, friend and later wife of Hitler,

Burgdorf, Wilhelm, general, adjutant of Hitler in the Wehrmacht,

Weidling, general, commandant of Berlin,

Weiss, lieutenant colonel, adjutant of General Burgdorf,

Goebbels, Paul Joseph, Minister of Education and Propaganda,

Goebbels, Magda, Goebbels' wife and her six children,

Hitler, Adolf

Günsche, Otto, SS-Sturmbannführer, Hitler's adjutant,

Johannmeier, Willy, major, assistant to General Burgdorf,

Karnau, Herman, bunker security officer,

Kempka, Erich, SS-Sturmbannführer, Hitler's personal chauffeur,

Krebs, Hans, General, Chief of Staff,

Christian, Gerda, Hitler's secretary,

Kruger, Elsa, Martin Bormann's secretary,

Linge, Heinz, SS-Sturmbannführer, Hitler's valet,

Lorenz, Heinz, spokesman for the Propaganda Ministry Press Department,

Mansfeld, Erich, SS Hauptscharführer, bunker guard,

Manzieli, fraulein, Hitler's cook,

Mattizing, Heinz, von Below's batman,

Möller, Willy Otto, tailor of the Reich Chancellery,

Müller, Heinrich, chief of the Gestapo,

Naumann, Werner, assistant to Goebbels,

Poppen, Hilko, bunker security officer,

Rattenhuber, Johann, SS Brigadeführer, head of Hitler's security service,

Faro, Baroness,

Fegelein, Hermann, SS Gruppenfuehrer, husband of Eva Braun's sister,

Foss, admiral, liaison officer of Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz,

Freytag-Loringhoven, Bernd von, major, adjutant of General Krebs,

Hewel, Walter, liaison officer for Joachim von Ribbentrop,

Höigl, SS-Standartenführer, Deputy SS-Brigadeführer Rattenhuber,

Zander, Wilhelm, SS-Standartenführer, Martin Bormann's deputy,

Schwägermann, Günther August Wilhelm, SS Hauptsturmführer,

Stumpfegger, Ludwig, Hitler's personal physician,

Junge, Gertrude, Hitler's secretary,

From 20 to 25 April 1945 the bunker was visited by:

Dönitz, Karl, Grand Admiral, Hitler's successor,

Greim, Robert von, Field Marshal of the Luftwaffe

Jodl, Alfred, General, Head of the Operations Department of the Armed Forces,

Keitel, Wilhelm, Chief of Staff of the German High Command,

Christian, Eckart, General of the Luftwaffe,

Reitsch, Hanna, Luftwaffe pilot, Ribbentrop, Joachim von, Minister of Foreign Affairs,

Schörner, Ferdinand, Field Marshal General,

Speer, Albert, Architect and Minister for Armaments and War Industry.

Fuhrercorps

(Riebgeg-Kogrz - "Leader's Corps"), a term applied to a huge number of Nazi party and state functionaries of various ranks. Although the leaders of National Socialism constantly declared their movement to be a popular one, in practice it did not have mass support from the population, since its ideology rejected civil liberties, elections, collegiality, any kind of compromise, etc. On the contrary, in society, as in the party, the principle of the Fuhrer, authoritarianism, unconditional obedience, bans on the profession depending on nationality, party affiliation, etc. were imposed. Only the Fuhrer's party environment was considered independent of the will of the people and obeyed only their leader.

Such a position of subordination to a strong personality led to the emergence of a huge number of Fuhrers of various types and ranks, who had the right to order lower ones, while unconditionally obeying higher ones. Posts, the amount of power and tenure have always depended on the whim of the Führer of higher rank. In any case, the head of any link considered himself something more than a civilian. Inside the "Fuhrer Corps" there was a fierce rivalry for promotion through the ranks.

See also Fuhrer cult.

Furtwängler, Wilhelm

(Rigіѵvapdіeg), (1886-1954), the most famous German conductor of the 20th century. Born January 25, 1886 in Berlin. After graduating from the Munich Conservatory, he performed on the stages of Strasbourg, Lübeck, Mannheim, Vienna, Frankfurt am Main and Berlin. In 1922-45 he led the Berlin Symphony Orchestra. Since 1937, he directed the Bayreuth Festival, dedicated to the work of the composer Richard Wagner.In 1926 and 1927 he led the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, in 1927-30 the Vienna Symphony Orchestra. After Hitler came to power in 1933, when the persecution of the creative intelligentsia began, many cultural figures were forced to leave Germany. Furtwängler stayed in Germany, because the pressure on the musicians from the Nazi regime was not so strong. However, over time, he also had to experience the discontent of the Nazi authorities, since Furtwängler consistently defended the work of the composer Paul Hindemith , who was declared decadent by the authorities. In 1933-34 Furtwängler headed the Berlin Opera. In 1946 he successfully passed the denazification process,stating that he did not fully understand the political events taking place in the country. In 1950-54 Furtwängler again led the Berlin Symphony Orchestra. He died November 30, 1954 in Baden-Baden.

Hakenkreutz

(Nakepkgeig), see Swastika.

Hammerstein, Kurt von

(Nattegsіep-EtsіyugsІ), (1878-1943), colonel -general of the German army, one of the leaders of the Reichswehr, commander-in-chief of the ground forces. Born September 26, 1878 in Hinrichshagen. During the 1st World War he served in the General Staff. In 1930 he replaced General Wilhelm Heye as commander of the ground forces of the Reichswehr. A capable, brave and honest officer, Hammerstein believed that his duty was to serve his homeland. He openly showed contempt for Hitler and his movement. In the winter of 1930, he made it clear that he would not hesitate to use military force in the event of Hitler's attempt to seize power in the country. “The Reichswehr will not allow Hitler to come to power,” said Hammerstein. In the presidential election of 1932 he supported Paul von Hindenburg,seeing in it the last obstacle to the establishment of the Nazi dictatorship. February 1, 1934 Hammerstein resigned.

During the mobilization of 1939, he was again drafted into the army and appointed commander of the fortified area "A" of the Western Wall. Later, he dropped the phrase that he hoped to lure Hitler to Cologne and capture him there. Hitler, who knew Hammerstein's anti-Nazi sentiments, appointed him to a secondary post head of the 8th military district (Silesia).There Hammerstein became close to Karl Friedrich Goerdeler and other participants in the conspiracy against Hitler.He died suddenly on April 25, 1943 in Berlin.

Hanke, Carl

(Napke), (1903-1945), Gauleiter of Silesia. Born August 24, 1903 in Lauban, Nizhny. Silesia. Miller by trade. In the 20s. joined the Nazi party. Since 1932 he was a member of the Reichstag. In 1933-41 adjutant and assistant to Paul Joseph Goebbels. In 1941, Hanke was appointed Gauleiter of Nizhny. Silesia. In the last days of the Third Reich, Hitler, accusing Himmler of treason and depriving him of all his posts and positions, appointed Hanke in his place. In July 1945, Hanke was shot by former Czech partisans.

Harnack, Ernst von

(Nagpask), (1888-1945), political and statesman of Germany, social democrat. Born July 15, 1888 in Berlin in the family of a religious historian. Studied at the University of Marburg. Member of the 1st World War. Until 1933, he occupied

Ernst von Harnack

personal posts in the Prussian government. After the Nazis came to power, Harnack took part in the resistance movement. He was arrested after the failure of the July conspiracy of 1944 and, by the verdict of the People's Tribunal , was executed on March 3, 1945.

Harnir, Adolf von

(Nagpieg), (1903-1945), German lawyer, member of the conspiracy against Hitler, baron. Born April 14, 1903 in Bavaria in the family of a large landowner. In 1934 he graduated from the law faculty of the University of Munich. He was an implacable opponent of Nazism. In 1939 Harnir was arrested by the Gestapo on a denunciation. In 1944 he was sentenced to 10 years in prison for high treason. He died on May 12, 1945 from typhus in the Straubing prison after the liberation of the city by American troops.

"Labor Paper"

The program proclaimed on January 16, 1934, which determined the new order of labor relations in the Third Reich. Entered into force May 1, 1934.

After the activities of the former trade unions were banned by the Nazi authorities and the German Labor Front was created in 1933, the Labor Charter was intended to create the illusion of class and social unity between employers and workers in German enterprises. In fact, it eliminated the right to conclude tariff agreements, abolished the right to strike, annulled workers' councils and made the owner of the enterprise or the commissar of labor appointed by the authorities the full owners of production.

Hartmann, Erich

(Nagіtalp), Luftwaffe fighter pilot, major. According to official statistics, he shot down 352 enemy aircraft, topping the list of German aces in the 2nd World War. Born April 19, 1922 in Weissach. He spent his childhood in China, where his father worked as a doctor. Since 1936, he flew gliders in an aviation club under the guidance of his mother, an athlete-pilot. He has been piloting airplanes since the age of 16. From 1940 he was trained in the 10th training regiment of the Luftwaffenear Königsberg, then at a flight school in Berlin. He began his combat flying career in August 1942 as part of the 52nd Fighter Aviation Regiment, which fought in the Caucasus. Participated in the Battle of Kursk, was shot down, captured, but managed to escape. In 1944 he was appointed commander of the 53rd air group. He was awarded many orders and medals, including becoming the sixth Luftwaffe pilot to receive the Knight's Cross with oak leaves, swords and diamonds. Nazi propaganda dubbed Hartmann a “blonde German knight.” Hartmann won his last 352nd victory on May 8, 1945 in the skies of Germany. He was handed over to the Soviet occupation authorities in May 1955. After spending 10 years in a Soviet POW camp, Hartman was released in 1955.

Hauptmann Erich Hartmann hugs his commander. On account of this ace - 352 downed aircraft

Aviation "Richthofen" in Oldenburg. Later he retired and lived in the suburbs of Stuttgart.

Many military historians question the number of planes Hartman shot down.

Hassel, Ulrich

(NazzeII), background (1881-1944), German diplomat, German ambassador in Rome. Born November 12, 1881 in Anklam, Pomerania. He was married to the daughter of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, a hero of the 1st World War. According to family tradition, he entered the diplomatic service. He was the German ambassador to Copenhagen (1926-30) and Belgrade (1930-32). In 1933 he was appointed ambassador to Rome. He opposed in every possible way the creation of the "Rome-Berlin axis" and the conclusion of the Anti-Comintern Pact. As a result of disagreements with Joachim von Ribbentrop , Hassel was recalled from Italy in 1937 and retired. He took an active part in the activities of various anti-Hitler groups. According to Hans Bernd Gisevius,Hassel was distinguished by a great sense of humor, diplomatic flair and unwavering political principles.

After the failure of the July conspiracy of 1944, Hassel was arrested and, by the verdict of the People's Tribunal , was hanged in the Plötzensee prison on September 8, 1944.

After the 2nd World War, Hassel's diaries were published, which became an important evidence of the activities of various anti-Hitler groups in the Third Reich.

Haushofer, Albrecht

(NaizboTeg), (1903-1945), poet, playwright, opponent of Nazism, son of the famous geopolitician Karl Haushofer. Born January 7, 1903 in Munich. Since 1940 lecturer in political geography at the University of Berlin. At the same time he worked in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Author of several dramatic works: "Scipio" (1934) and "Sulla" (1938). Perceiving Nazism as a terrible disaster for the German people, Haushofer joined the resistance movement. After the defeat of the July conspiracy of 1944he, as one of the participants, was arrested and imprisoned in Moabit. The “Moabite Sonnets” he wrote in prison, which were accidentally preserved and published later, are evidence of the lofty spirit of the fighters against Nazism. A few days before the end of the war, on April 23, 1945, Haushofer was taken out of prison and killed on the way.

Haushofer, Carl

(HauszoTer), Haushofer (1869-1946), German politician and scientist, head of the German geopolitical school. Born August 27, 1869 in Munich. From 1887 he performed various diplomatic missions in Southeast Asia, in 1908-1910 - in Japan. During the 1st World War 

was a brigadier general. In 1921 he became professor of geography at the University of Munich, where he founded the Institute of Geopolitics. He was a teacher and friend of Rudolf Hess, who later introduced him to Hitler. Haushofer was the founder and editor (in 1924-44) of the journal Zeitshrift für geopolitik (gezsssgiTi Tiig Seoroiiiik).

Haushofer was the largest representative of geopolitical science - the modern version of political geography or anthropogeography. The idea of ​​merging geography and politics was not new. Even Herodotus and Thucydides recognized the dependence of the course of political events on the characteristic features of the geographical position of the nation. Montesquieu, the Swedish pan-Germanist R. Kjellen (who proposed the term “geopolitics” during World War I), the German geographer F. Ratzel, the English geographer X. Mackinder, American Admiral A. Mahen and many others. Haushofer, on the basis of previous theories, developed his own principles of geopolitics of the latest period of history, promoting the ideas

Karl Haushofer

revanchism and aggression. He gave geopolitics the form in which it became part of the official doctrine of the Third Reich. His writings eclectically combined geographical determinism, racial theory, and social Darwinism. For example, Haushofer believed that the British Empire was close to decline, and world leadership should gradually pass to the continental states and, above all, to Germany. The need to expand the "living space" for the Germans inevitably pushes Germany towards territorial expansion, mainly in the East. At the same time, however, Haushofer warned that the British Empire must nevertheless remain the focus of German foreign policy.

In Nazi Germany, Haushofer's geopolitics became extremely fashionable and acquired a mystical sound. Haushofer himself had a reputation as "the man behind Hitler." The Fuhrer used the theoretical aspects of geopolitics as a rationalistic explanation for Nazi expansion. He borrowed from Haushofer his favorite expression: "space as a force factor."

When Rudolf Hess made his flight to Scotland on May 10, 1941 (see Hess, flight), he claimed that the idea of ​​​​this flight belongs to Haushofer, who allegedly saw the figure of Hess stepping over the walls of English castles decorated with tapestries, and endowed with the mission of convincing two Nordic nations merge into one.

Abroad, Haushofer was considered a forerunner of Nazism and one of the pillars of Nazi ideology. However, the zeal with which the Nazis began to put into practice his geopolitical theories led Haushofer himself into confusion. After the failure of the July 1944 conspiracy, in which his son was implicated, Haushofer was arrested by the authorities. After the execution of his son and having completely lost his illusions about Nazism, Haushofer committed suicide on March 13, 1946 in Pel, near Weilheim.

Huizinger, Adolf

(Neizіpdeg), lieutenant general of the German army, head of the operations department of the main headquarters of the ground forces during the 2nd World War. Born August 4, 1897 in Holzminden. In 1931-44 he served in the General Staff of the Wehrmacht. Huizinger was not a supporter of Nazi ideology and anti-Semitism, which he called "military dementia, adding unnecessary difficulties in the fight against the enemy." He was aware of the conspiracy against Hitler, but the extent of his involvement in it is not clear. On July 20, 1944, Huizinger attended a meeting at the Fuhrer's headquarters near Rastenburg, during which an attempt was made on Hitler's life, and was slightly wounded by a bomb blast. Huizinger was arrested and on August 7, 1944 appeared before the People's Tribunal.At the trial, it turned out that he was involved in the plot by General Helmut Stiff from the High Command of the Ground Forces. Huizinger wrote an explanatory note addressed to Hitler, insisting that he was not involved in the conspiracy, after which he was released.

From 1952 Huizinger played an important role in the military affairs of the FRG. In 1957-61 he served as chief inspector of the Bundeswehr, and from April 1961 to February 1964 he was the representative of the NATO armed forces in Washington.

Heimver

X ymwer (Neіtѵѵebg - "Union for the Defense of the Motherland"), an armed organization in Austria in 1919-38. It was created by the Austrian bourgeoisie to fight the labor movement. In 1930, the heimwehr adopted a program of action that was frankly Nazi in nature. focused mainly on fascist Italy, which provided assistance to the heimwehr with money and weapons.In 1934, heimwehr detachments participated in the suppression of armed uprisings of workers against Nazism.

Haynes, Edmund

X aine s, (Neipez), (1897-1934), one of the top leaders of the SA assault detachments. Born July 21, 1897. Was an officer during the 1st World War, after which he joined one of the many units of the "Volunteer Corps" -group of Gerhard Rossbach as his adjutant. He took an active part in street battles with the communists. Joining the Nazi Party, Heines became the closest associate of Ernst Röhm. In May 1927, he was expelled from the NSDAP under the pretext of “loss of moral qualities”, in fact, because he called Hitler a “kitchen rag” and tried to unite around himself SA officers who were dissatisfied with the Fuhrer’s autocracy. Ryoma's intervention saved Haynes from more serious consequences. In 1929, Haynes was sentenced to 5 years in prison for complicity in the murder, but was soon released under an amnesty. In 1933 he was promoted to the rank of SA Obergruppenführer (general) and appointed Police Commissioner of Breslau.

June 30, 1934, during the events of '7-/eyes of long knives', the SS found Heines in a hotel room in Bad Wiessee in bed with his young assistant. place among other leaders of the SA.

Heinkel, Ernst

(NeipkeI), (1888-1958), German aircraft designer. Born January 24, 1888 in Grunbach (Württemberg). In 1911 he graduated from the Higher Technical School in Stuttgart. In 1913-22 he worked as the chief designer of a number of aircraft manufacturing firms. During the years of the 1st World War, Heinkel created more than 30 types of aircraft used by the armies of Germany and Austria. In 1922 he founded an aircraft manufacturing company in Warnemünde, which existed until 1945. The company produced more than 100 types of aircraft (training, passenger, reconnaissance, bombers, fighters, etc.). Built in 1939

the first experimental jet aircraft Xe-176 (with a rocket engine) and Xe-178 (with a turbojet engine). The Xe-111 twin-engine bombers were widely used during World War II. From 1950, Heinkel ran an aircraft manufacturing company in Stuttgart.

Höss, Rudolf Franz

(Noezz), (1900-1947), commandant of the Auschwitz camp. Born November 25, 1900 in Baden-Baden in the family of a shopkeeper. As a teenager, he participated in the 1st World War, fought on the Turkish front. He was wounded several times, awarded the Iron Cross II and I degree. After the war he joined the Volunteer Corps. In 1923, together with Martin Bormann , Höss was arrested for the murder of Walter Kadow, whom the Nazis accused of having allegedly extradited Albert Leo Schlageter to the French occupation authorities. In 1928, after being released under an amnesty, he joined the SS. In 1934 he was sent to the guards at Dachau.In 1940, with the rank of SS Hauptsturmführer, he became commandant of Auschwitz. Höss bore full responsibility for the extermination of more than 2.5 million people in the Auschwitz gas chambers. In 1945, on the recommendation of Bormann, Höss was appointed deputy chief inspector of concentration camps, SS-Obergruppenführer Richard Glucks. March 29, 1947

Höss was sentenced to death in Warsaw and executed at Auschwitz a few days later.

Hilfswerk mutter und kind

(НіІТзѵѵегк Міііег ipсі Кіпі), an organization to help mothers and children, which was part of the Nazi charitable organization National Socialist People's Charity.

Hilfsvillige

(НізѵѵіІІIDE; НІVVIІ), volunteers from among foreign citizens, mainly Russians, who joined the German army at the end of World War II. During the offensive of the Soviet troops, thousands of Russians, including prisoners of war, voluntarily retreated after parts of the German army. Air defense units were recruited from them and various non-combat missions were assigned in exchange for good treatment.

Hilfsgemeinschaft auf gegsnzaitigkite

(НіІТздэіпзсІіаН аuТ Sedepzeіі-іdkeіі; NIAC), a mutual aid association of former members of the military units of the SS, formed after the 2nd World War to provide them with financial support. The headquarters of this organization was in Lüdenscheid, Westphalia.

Hilfskasse

(NiIzkazze), a special relief fund for members of the Nazi Party who were injured and maimed in street battles with the communists. Established in 1930 by Martin Bormann, who headed this foundation.

Hindemith, Paul

(Nipsietif), (1895-1963), German composer, music theorist, conductor, violinist and violist. Born November 16, 1895 in Hanau near Frankfurt am Main. From the age of 13 he worked in orchestras. At the same time he studied at the Frankfurt Conservatory. In 1915-23 he was an accompanist at the Opera House in the same place, in 1921-29 violist of the string quartet L. Amar - P. Hindemith, in 1927-37 professor at the Higher School of Music in Berlin.

Hindemith's work includes operas, ballets and symphonies, compositions of chamber genres, works of the most complex forms and simple pieces for music lovers. In his work, he affirmed high ethical principles, throughout his life he remained faithful to the ideas of Christian humanism. He was a staunch opponent of the Nazi regime.

Hindemith's works of the 20s. not without shocking, grotesque features. Such are the one-act operas “The Killer, the Hope of Women” and “Nush-Nushi” (1921), the piano suite “1922”, the series “Chamber Music” for soloists and chamber orchestra, string quartets. The maturity of the style is revealed by the vocal cycles “The Young Servant” (1922) and “The Life of Mary” to texts by R. Rilke (1923), the opera “Cardillac” (based on the story “Mademoiselle de Scuderi” by E.T.A. Hoffmann, staged in 1926) . Hindemith actively participated in the organization of contemporary music festivals, and was also one of the inspirers of the Gebrauchsmuzik movement (Gebrauchsmusik - "everyday music"), which aimed to promote new music in amateur circles. In the late 20's and early 30's. Hindemith created the comic opera News of the Day (1929), the music for the Instructive Play(1929), the musical game “We are building a city” (1930), “Boston Symphony” (1930), oratorio “Infinite” (1931), “Philharmonic Concerto” (1932).

When the Nazi authorities banned the performance of Hindemith's opera The Painter Matisse (staged in 1938 in Zurich) and declared his music decadent, the composer was forced to leave Germany in 1938. He settled first in Switzerland, and then in 1940 in the USA, where in 1946 he received an American citizenship, conducted pedagogical work at universities and colleges, acted as a conductor.

Hirt, August

Girt, (Nіgi), German anthropologist and surgeon. Born April 29, 1898 in Mannheim. Having received a medical degree, he taught for some time in Heidelberg. After meeting Himmler in 1936, Hirt joined the SS in 1939 with the rank of Hauptsturmführer (Captain). Himmler challenged him to find an antidote for mustard gas. Hirt experimented on dogs and on himself, after which he ended up in the hospital with a severe hemorrhage in the lungs. Subsequently, he began to conduct experiments on concentration camp prisoners, many of whom became blind or died.

Himmler, as president of the Ahnenerbe Society, sought to achieve a "scientific justification" for his own racial theories. To do this, he appointed Hirt as head of the Anatomical Institute established at the University of Strassburg. To collect skulls, Hirt established close contacts with “suppliers of raw materials” - Josef Kramer, known by the nickname “Belsen beast”, and Wolfram Sievers, manager of the affairs of the Ahnenerbe society. who are the prototype of a disgusting but characteristic subhuman, we have the opportunity to achieve a certain

scientific results. After a violent death, the head of a Jew, which should not be damaged, should be separated from the body and placed in a hermetically sealed vessel filled with a preservative composition.

When American and French troops approached Strasbourg in the summer of 1944, Hirt asked Himmler what to do with his collection of skulls. Himmler advised to destroy it. However, the Allies found a pile of decapitated bodies in Hirt's laboratory pantry. Hirth himself disappeared and was nowhere to be found.

Holocaust

(Noiosaizi), the Nazi policy of genocide, the physical extermination of the Jewish population of Europe.

In the NSDAP program (“25 points”) adopted long before the Nazis came to power, paragraphs 4 and 5 declared the complete expulsion of Jews from the public and cultural life of Germany. In "Mein Kampf" Hitler subjected the Jews to fierce attacks as a civilization-destroying race. Hitler wrote. Only a few in Germany then understood what was hidden behind these words.

The persecution of the Jews began almost immediately after the Nazis came to power. Under the pretext of retaliatory measures against the anti-Hitler campaign unleashed abroad, allegedly inspired by Jews, a wide wave of anti-Semitism swept through Germany :in a matter of weeks (by the Decree of April 7, 1933), representatives of Jewish nationality were expelled from all local governments, state institutions, courts and universities. Jewish doctors were forbidden to conduct private practice and work in hospitals. The cultural life of the country was subjected to a purge: Jews were forbidden to work in film production, the media, artists and musicians received a ban on the profession. Jews were deprived of the right to engage in trade and production. Everyday anti-Semitism has acquired enormous proportions. The police did not make the slightest effort to protect the Jews from attacks in the streets. By the end of 1933, over 63,000 Jews were forced to leave Germany.

The second wave of anti-Semitism began after the adoption in September 1935 of the Nuremberg laws on citizenship and race, according to which Jews were deprived of German citizenship, the right to vote, they were forbidden to marry Germans, etc. On July 23, 1938, a decree was issued according to which every Jew was obliged to register with the police and obtain a special certificate with the mark “3” (“Jew”) and present it at the first request of the authorities. The order of August 17, 1938 required Jewish men to add the name Israel, and women Sarah, to their real, non-Jewish name. On October 5, 1938, the mark "Jew" in foreign passports became obligatory, which caused a wave of indignation all over the world. All these measures brought the German Jews to the brink of starvation.

The anti-Jewish campaign reached its apogee in November 1938, when in response to the assassination in Paris by the Polish Jew Herschel Grunszpan of the German ambassador Ernst vom Rath, a wave of organized Jewish pogroms swept across Germany (see Kristallnacht).36 people were killed, about 20 thousand Jews were arrested, 267 synagogues and hundreds of shops were destroyed and burned. Hermann Goering announced "the final settlement with the Jews." On January 30, 1939, on the sixth anniversary of coming to power, Hitler spoke in the Reichstag with the first public threat of the physical extermination of the Jews: “If, with international financial support, the Jews in Europe and beyond succeed again in plunging the peoples into a new world war, then the result of this will not be the establishment of Bolshevik world rule and Jewish triumph, and the annihilation of the Jews in Europe.”

NSDAP order on the boycott of Jews dated April 1, 1933: “In every locality where there are branches of the NSDAP, executive committees must be formed to systematically carry out the boycott of Jewish shops, goods, doctors and lawyers. Committees are obliged to ensure that innocent citizens do not suffer, while the treatment of Jews should be as ruthless as possible”

The flywheel of Hitler's plans for the physical extermination of the Jews began to unwind in full force from the first days of World War II. In May 1940, the Auschwitz concentration camp was created on the territory of occupied Poland , which soon turned into a huge factory for the extermination of people. In May 1941, the camp commandant, Rudolf Franz Höss, received an order personally from Himmler to equip the camp with gas chambers. On July 31, 1941, Goering sent the following order to the head of the SD, Reinhard Heydrich : “I hereby order you to make all the necessary organizational, financial and military preparations for the complete solution of the Jewish question in the zone of German influence in Europe.” On January 20 

1942 Wannsee meeting approved the so-called plan. "Final Solution", the responsibility for the implementation of which was assigned to Adolf Eichmann. Heydrich summed up the meeting: “Europe will be combed from west to east ... Undoubtedly, a huge number of Jews will disappear due to natural attrition. The rest who manage to survive should be treated accordingly, because... they may become the germ of a new Jewish development. Don't forget the experience of history." The Gestapo and SD immediately set to work, constantly increasing the pace of sending millions of Jews to the "death camps".What looked like unrestrained political propaganda on the pages of Mein Kampf has now become a real, carefully organized process of mass extermination of people, the epicenter of which was the camps of Auschwitz, Majdanek, Treblinka, Belsen and Sobibor. In addition to the “death camps,” there were over 400 transshipment and transit camp centers that sent labor to the west. But Auschwitz remained the main center of the Holocaust. During the period of the highest activity, it accommodated up to 100 thousand people, and up to 12 thousand prisoners passed through its gas chambers daily. SS doctors met arriving transports, immediately selected those fit for work, and the rest, including women and children, were sent to the gas chambers, each of which simultaneously accommodated 2 thousand people. At the Nuremberg TrialsRudolf Höss said: “In the extermination rooms we used “cyclone B”, crystallized hydrocyanic acid, which was poured through a special small hole. It took from 3 to 15 minutes to kill people in the chamber, depending on the climatic conditions. We learned that people were dead when their screams stopped. We usually waited half an hour before opening the doors and dragging out the bodies. After that, a special team [Zonder-commandos, consisted of prisoners] seized rings and gold teeth from the corpses.”

By the winter of 1944, the extermination camps were in danger of being captured by Soviet troops. As it became more and more difficult to accommodate the huge masses of prisoners, Himmler and his SS subordinates made some deviations from the original program, hoping to hide the true extent of their crimes. In March-April 1945, Himmler, who was conducting separate negotiations with the Allies behind Hitler's back, undertook, through the mediation of the International Red Cross, an attempt to evacuate some of the Jewish prisoners to Switzerland. However, the monstrous consequences of the Holocaust have already become known to the world community. The whole world was shocked by the published facts of the countless atrocities of the Nazis against the civilian population of Europe.

The Holocaust was the most monstrous manifestation of barbarism in the entire history of civilization. Attempts by historians, psychologists, sociologists and psychiatrists to find a rational explanation for this tragic historical phenomenon have so far been unsuccessful.

Hosebach, Friedrich

(Hossach), adjutant and assistant to Hitler in 1934-38. Born November 21, 1894 in Unna. He began his military career as a cadet in 1913. In 1934 he became the head of the central department of the General Staff of the Wehrmacht and at the same time Hitler's adjutant. In 1935 - lieutenant colonel, in 1937 - colonel. On November 5, 1937, he took part in a meeting of the top military leadership (see Hossbach meeting), where he kept a shorthand record of Hitler's speech, which later became known as the Hossbach protocol. This document, which contained Hitler's aggressive intentions, was announced at the Nuremberg trials and subsequently regarded by historians as an important turning point in the fate of the Third Reich.

In January 1938, Hosebach was dismissed for having warned Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch about a provocation being prepared against him with the aim of removing him from office.

After the outbreak of the 2nd World War, Hosebach was reinstated to work in the General Staff. In 1942 he was promoted to the rank of major general, later lieutenant general. In 1943 he commanded the 16th Panzer Corps, then for a short time the 4th Army on the Eastern Front. On January 30, 1945, he was removed from his post for failing to comply with the Fuhrer's order and withdrawing his troops from Vost. Prussia.

Hossbach, protocol

Recording of Hitler's speech at a secret military meeting in the Reich Chancellery on November 5, 1937, which was attended by:

Fuhrer and Chancellor, Field Marshal von Blomberg, Minister of War,

Colonel General Baron von Fritsch, Commander of the Ground Forces,

Admiral Raeder, Commander of the Navy,

Colonel General Goering, commander of the Luftwaffe,

Baron von Neurath, Minister of Foreign Affairs,

Colonel Hosebach.

Officially dated November 10, 1937, this document was read out during the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg on November 24, 1945.

It was clear from Hitler's speech that the planned Anschluss of Austria and then the annexation of Czechoslovakia would be only the first step towards the conquest of "living space" in Europe. “The future of Germany depends on the satisfaction of her need for new territories. This expansion is not possible without the suppression of opposition, and the problem is to achieve the greatest space at the lowest cost.” Hitler declared that it was necessary to immediately determine the timing and methods of the use of military force. He called the deadlines 1943-1945.

He considered the implementation of this plan to be his life's work: “It is unlikely that I will live long. My family never lived to a ripe old age. Both of my parents died young. The problems that need to be solved [“living space”] must be solved as quickly as possible, even during my lifetime. Future generations won't."

The Führer asked that, in the interests of long-term German policy, his speech be regarded, in the event of his death, as his last will and political testament.

One of the consequences of the meeting was the removal from their posts (three months later) of its main participants - Generals von Blomberg, von Fritsch and Minister von Neurath (see the Blomberg-Fritsch case).

Hossbach, meeting

Under this name, the secret military conference on November 5, 1937, with the participation of Hitler and the top military leadership, entered German historiography, at which Hitler first informed his generals about his intentions to start a war. Until that time, in all public speeches, Hitler swore to the public about his desire for peace. At the meeting, Hitler outlined the concrete steps he was going to take to win the "living space" for the Germans in the East. The meeting was attended by: War Minister Werner von Blomberg, Commander of the Land Forces General Werner von Fritsch, Commander of the Navy Admiral Erich Raeder, Commander of the Air Force, Colonel General Hermann Gering,Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath, Colonel Friedrich Hosebach.

Hitler demanded the strictest secrecy from the participants in the meeting, and only after that he stated his intentions. He demanded that his speech be treated as a political testament in the event of his death. Colonel Hosebach's detailed notes of Hitler's speech were later known as the Hossbach Protocol.

"Crystal Night"

The night of November 9-10, 1938, during which Jewish pogroms took place throughout Germany. The signal for the beginning of the Jewish pogroms, the reason for which the Nazi authorities had long been looking for, was the murder in Paris of 17-year-old Polish Jew Herschel Grunspan on November 7, 1938, the adviser to the German embassy, ​​Ernst vom Rath. In response to this act, on the night of November 9-10, on the personal order of Hitler and with the organizational participation of Goebbels and Himmler, an all-German pogrom was staged as a spontaneous expression of popular anger. 267 synagogues and 815 Jewish-owned shops and businesses were destroyed and burned. 20 thousand Jews were arrested and thrown into concentration camps, 36 people were killed. The total damage amounted to 25 million Reichsmarks, of which about 5 million fell on broken windows (hence the second name of “Kristallnacht” - “Night of broken windows”). Subsequently, a legend arose that Goebbels and Himmler organized this pogrom without the knowledge of Hitler, and he, having learned about this, was allegedly dissatisfied and severely reprimanded them for this action. However, the imperial press chief, who was close to Hitler,OttoDietrich strongly refutes this version, arguing that it was Hitler who initiated the Kristallnacht. (Book by Otto Dietrich “12 Years with Hitler”, Munich, 1955).

Huber, Kurt

(Huber), Huber (1893-1943), lecturer at the University of Munich, German philosopher and psychologist. Born October 24, 1893 in Chur, Switzerland, in the family of a school teacher. After his family moved to Württemberg, Huber began to study music and philosophy at the University of Munich, from which he graduated in 1917. Here he began to lecture and in 1926 became a professor at this university. In 1937, Huber established the German Society for the Study of Folk Song Art, but entered into a confrontation with the Nazis.

Kurt Huber

Russian authorities. Not accepting Nazism, Huber joined the resistance movement and joined the underground organization White Rose. At the beginning of 1943, Huber issued a leaflet that was distributed on the territory of the University of Munich by his associates: “On behalf of the German youth, we demand from Adolf Hitler that he return to us personal freedom, which is the greatest value for every German, and which he deceived deprived us in the most humiliating way.” Huber was arrested by the Gestapo and, along with two of his students, was sentenced to death. He was beheaded on July 13, 1943.

Hugenberg, Alfred

(Hidenberg) (1865-1951), Hugenberg, German industrialist and politician. Born June 19, 1865 in Hannover. Being an ardent nationalist, Hugenberg became one of the founders of the Pan-German Union,advocated the establishment of world domination of Germany. In 1894, Hugenberg tried to organize the purchase of Polish lands with the aim of settling Germans in this territory. He was the initiator of the creation of numerous agricultural societies. From 1903 he worked in the Prussian Ministry of Finance. In 1909-18 he headed the board of directors of Krupp enterprises, very successfully managing their financial activities. Since 1916, he began to engage in his own business activities and, thanks to exceptional energy, in a short time turned into one of the most powerful industrialists in Germany. In an effort to combine business and politics, Hugenberg became the owner of many German newspapers, wire agencies and publishing houses; he owned Germany's largest film studio UFA.

In 1928 Hugenberg became chairman of the German National People's Party (DNFP), of which he remained the permanent leader until its dissolution. Hugenberg constantly attacked the parliamentarianism of the Weimar Republic, ridiculed its constitution and sharply criticized the Young Plan.on reparations (1928). On October 11, 1931, he, along with other members of the right-wing parties, including the Nazis, joined the Harzburg Front, which later ceased to exist, having lost the support of Hitler. Hugenberg played a significant role in attracting the financial and industrial magnates of Germany, who contributed to Hitler's rise to power. In the elections of July 31, 1932, the DNFP suffered a crushing defeat. On August 13, 1932, when Hitler already saw himself as Chancellor of Germany, Hugenberg refused to support him, but later changed his position, for which Hitler rewarded him with the post of Minister of Economy (from January 30 to June 29, 1933). All of Hugenberg's attempts to take control of the activities of the Nazi faction in the Reichstag failed. Deprived of the support of President Paul von Hindenburgand under pressure from the stormtroopers from the SD, June 26, 1933 Hugenberg was forced to resign. His nationalist party, along with others, was disbanded by the Nazi authorities. Hugenberg died in Kückenbruch on March 12, 1951.

Hundertschaften

(NipbegizsNaNep - “Hundreds”), units of SA stormtroopers, which were formed starting from 1923. Creating a personal guard from young men from 17 to 23 years old, Hitler put forward “blind obedience [Kabaѵegdebogzat] and the hardness of Krupp steel” as the main requirements for selection.

Huh, Ricarda

(Nisii), (1864-1947), German poetess, specialist in the history of German literature. Born July 18, 1864 in Braunschweig. She received her doctorate in Zurich in 1892, worked in the local city library, then moved to Bremen. Huh was a supporter and leader of the neo-romantic school, as opposed to the naturalistic tendencies in modern German literature. She was known for lyrical poems that sang of sublime love, life and beauty. Later she turned to the historical works of the period of early romanticism, and also studied the history of the Thirty Years' War. In 1933, after Hitler came to power, Huh withdrew from the Prussian Academy of Fine Arts in protest against the Nazi persecution of Jews. She died in Schoenberg on 17 November 1947.

“C” plan

(“2”; from German 7іеІ - “Goal”), the construction plan of the German Navy, developed under the leadership of Erich Raeder and submitted for approval to the Führer on January 17, 1939. The implementation of the plan was calculated for 1947. The plan, in particular, provided for 1944 in addition to 4 Bismarck-class battleships to launch 6 H-class battleships (with a displacement of over 56,000 tons), 4 aircraft carriers, 15 pocket battleships, 5 heavy cruisers, 44 light cruisers, 68 destroyers and 249 submarines. On January 27, 1939, Hitler approved a new plan for the construction of the Navy and gave the fleet absolute advantages over the Wehrmacht and the Luftwaffe. Started by Hitler on September 1, 1939, the 2nd World War did not allow the implementation of this plan.

Zweig, Arnold

(2іѵѵеід), German writer. Born November 10, 1887 in Glogau, Silesia, in the family of a saddler. He gained worldwide fame for his realistic novels, including The Case with Sergeant Grisha (1927). Being an ardent Zionist, Zweig was denaturalized after the Nazis came to power and emigrated to Palestine. In 1948 he returned to his homeland and settled in East Germany. In 1950 -53 was president of the German Academy of Arts (GDR).

Zweig, Stefan

(2ѵѵеід), (1881-1942), Austrian writer, poet, biographer. Born November 28, 1881 in Vienna in a Jewish family. From 1919 he lived in Salzburg. He was a supporter of the pan-European Union. He received worldwide recognition thanks to his deeply psychological works, in particular, biographies of Marie Antoinette, Magellan, Balzac and other great people. In 1934 he moved to London. In 1941 he emigrated to Brazil, where, together with his second wife, he committed suicide on February 22, 1942 in Petropolis, near Rio de Janeiro.

Zeitzler, Kurt

(7еіігіег), (1895-1963), general of the German army. Born June 9, 1895 in Luccau. Personnel officer. During World War I he commanded the 72nd Infantry Regiment. In April-September 1939 the commander of the 60th Infantry Division. From September 1939 to March 1940 - Chief of Staff of the 22nd Army Corps. From March 1940 to April 1942 - Chief of Staff of the 1st Tank Army and Chief of Staff of Tank Group "A", in 1942, with the rank of Major General, he was appointed Chief of Staff of Army Group "D" on the Western Front.

September 22, 1942, replacing the retired Colonel General

Franz Halder, Zeitzler was appointed Chief of the General Staff of the Ground Forces (OKH) on the Eastern Front. He sought to convince the Fuhrer that the position of German troops on the Soviet-German front was becoming unreliable and a temporary retreat was necessary. Hitler refused to follow this advice. Zeitzler retired on January 31, 1945.

Zellenleiter

(2eІІepІeiіeg), a low-ranking Nazi party leader who was in charge of outreach to several city blocks. In 1935 there were 54,976 Zellenleiters in Germany, and in January 1939, 89,378.

Central Political Commission

(Рііііізсііе гпігаікотіцізіоп; Р7К), the administration of the Nazi Party, created in December 1932 after the reorganization of the party. Dealt with internal affairs.

“Zeppelin”

(7erreііп), the code name of the headquarters of the main command of the ground forces of Nazi Germany (OKH).

Ziegenberg

(Zedenjegd), a complex of fortifications that served as Hitler's headquarters in the last days of the Third Reich. Situated on the slopes of a valley near Bad Nauheim, Hesse, Ziegenberg was a manor in Goethe's time. In 1939, Albert Speer was instructed to build the Fuhrer's military headquarters in the foothills of the Taunus Range. This complex, in which millions of marks were invested, was used to direct Operation Gelb in 1940 and then mothballed. In November 1944, Hitler moved his headquarters from Wolfschanze to Ziegenberg to meet the Allied advance . operation 1944-45.

Cyclone-B

(Suklinop-V), a poisonous substance (hydrocyanic acid), used to exterminate prisoners of the "death camps". It was blue crystals of hydrogen cyanide, which was poured through a special ventilation hole in the chamber. The hole was then hermetically sealed. The production of “cyclone B” was carried out at enterprises“ИГ Фарбениндустри” и было запатентовано как сильнодействующее дезинфицирующее средство. Позднее праве на производство гидрогена цианида было приобретено компаниями “Теш и Штабенов” в Гамбурге и “Дегеш” во Франкфурте-на-Майне, которые поставляли тонны “циклона-Б” для лагерей уничтожения. См. также Хол окост.

Container with "cyclone-B". “When I came up with the idea of ​​annihilation chambers,” wrote Rudolf Höss, “I needed a cyclone-B, which we passed into the chamber through a small hole. It took from 3 to 15 minutes to kill the prisoners, depending on the weather conditions”

Zinsknechtšaft

(Zinskpesch18chaTi - "Interest in Wage Labor", an economic theory put forward by Gottfried Feder, one of the founders of National Socialism. According to Feder, the existence of a future Germany depended primarily on the eradication of the economic factors that gave rise to an interest in wage labor. Feder explained his own concept this way:

“The abolition of wage labor is what we call for. I am aware that not everyone understands the fundamental importance of this, even in our own ranks. One can see, for example, how little our speakers care about getting to the root of this problem. Although most of them feel that this is a fundamental issue; after all, there is in the vocabulary of our comrades the slogan "Struggle against capitalism." But only by destroying the interest in hired labor can one influence the real life of an individual and a nation. Financial circumstances make the nation "slaves of self-interest", so practical steps are required to eradicate interest in wage labor. The destruction of this interest will bring results to the entire population - for many it is not clear.

What is meant by “interest in wage labor”? The position of the people when they live according to monetary laws or the rules of the all-powerful Jewish big business.

The farmer is “interested” in hired labor, who is forced to take out a loan, and is so “interested” that this “interest” almost completely eats up the profit from his labor. “Interested” is the one who is forced to borrow or carry mortgage debts all his life, like an eternal lead ball.

"Interested" is the worker who works in factories or workshops for a miserable wage, while the shareholder receives interest and dividends - without worrying and without working.

The "interested" bourgeoisie as a whole, which today must work in essence in order to pay interest on bank loans.

“Interested” are all those who are forced to earn their bread with their hands or mind, while their opponents - without care and labor - receive huge incomes from borrowed capital, thanks to profits from trade or banking, from financial transactions. - We do not mention those few independent people who have savings accounts, even though they only make a meager profit due to a completely rotten system, but even their small savings have been withdrawn hundreds of times in their lives in various ways, through taxes or pension contributions, etc., so in in old age, they received a small part of what was taken from them before.

“Interested” is an industrialist who creates his own business with incredible efforts; then, according to a principle preserved from time immemorial, turns his business into a joint-stock company - from now on he is no more than any other boss, from now on he must satisfy the insatiable greed for the income of "members of the board and shareholders" if he does not want to fly out of his own business.

“Interested” is any nation that covers its monetary needs through “loans”.

The “interest” of any nation is destructive; the nation destroys itself by giving up its most important internal sovereign rights to the power of money, gives up its financial interests, its railroads, gives up control of its most important taxes and tariffs, as Germany did with the Dawes Plan.

“Interested” are the peoples and governments that have bowed before the power of borrowed capital.

“Interested” are creative workers who are forced to give themselves for the sake of gold – money today is becoming the most cruel tyrant over creativity.

“Interest in wage labor” is a suitable term that reveals the essence of the oppositions: “capital versus labor”, “origin versus money”, “creativity versus profit”.

The need to destroy the interest in wage labor is so great, so important to our people, our race, that the resurrection of our nation from the depths of slavery and shame depends on the solution of this problem. Our happiness, prosperity and the preservation of civilization throughout the world depend on it.

The destruction of interest in wage labor is the axis around which everything revolves. This is much more than a financial or political necessity... it affects everyone's privacy. This requires a decision from everyone: service to the people or the unlimited power of private capital. This is the solution to the social question.”

"Citadel"

(СііасІеІ), the German code name for the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. In the hope of turning the tide of the war in the East, the Wehrmacht Supreme High Command decided to deliver a massive blow to the enemy at the same time as

in the north, from the side of Orel and from the south, from the side of Kharkov. In addition to eliminating the Kursk salient formed by the Red Army, the ultimate goal was to launch a decisive offensive against Moscow. The operational orders signed by Hitler stated that Operation Citadel should lead to a quick and decisive defeat of the Soviet armed forces in the central sector of the front and allow them to seize the strategic initiative. From the German side, 17 tank divisions (70% of the total number available) participated in Operation Citadel, moreover, they were equipped with the latest Panther and Tiger heavy tanks and Ferdinand self-propelled guns. About 900 thousand soldiers were concentrated to participate in the operation , 10 thousand guns, 2700 tanks and 2 thousand aircraft. On July 5, 1943, one of the largest tank battles of the 2nd World War began on the Kursk Bulge. Information received in advance by Soviet military intelligence about the planned German offensive allowed the commanders of the Central and Voronezh fronts to launch a preemptive massive artillery strike. The German command, which did not expect this, was forced to postpone the offensive for several hours. By July 12, the German offensive had lost momentum - the Germans advanced only 12 kilometers from the north and 35 kilometers from the south. An attempt to encircle and defeat the Soviet troops concentrated on the Kursk Bulge failed. The Germans lost 30 divisions, including 7 tank divisions. By July 12, the German offensive had lost momentum - the Germans advanced only 12 kilometers from the north and 35 kilometers from the south. An attempt to encircle and defeat the Soviet troops concentrated on the Kursk Bulge failed. The Germans lost 30 divisions, including 7 tank divisions. By July 12, the German offensive had lost momentum - the Germans advanced only 12 kilometers from the north and 35 kilometers from the south. An attempt to encircle and defeat the Soviet troops concentrated on the Kursk Bulge failed. The Germans lost 30 divisions, including 7 tank divisions.

Generals Dietl and Schörner discussing the details of Operation Citadel in May 1943

GeneralGuderian wrote : “As a result of the failure of the Citadel operation, the tank troops, replenished with such difficulty, suffered heavy losses in people and equipment and lost their combat capability for a long time ... The Russians, of course, did not fail to take advantage of their victory. Since then, there has not been a moment of peace for us on the Eastern Front.”

Cossen

(Zossen), the central command post of the German High Command (OKB) near Berlin.

Zossen coup

An attempt to organize the overthrow of Hitler shortly after the start of World War II. Disheartened after the failure of the Berlin conspiracy of 1938, the leaders of the anti-Hitler movement decided on another attempt. The generals involved in the conspiracy, after a quick victory over Poland, now hoped for an equally quick peace, but they were soon disappointed. The Fuhrer began to talk about "the killing without any pity of men, women and children of Polish nationality." Even in the rapture of victory, he insisted that "our strength lies in our ruthlessness and cruelty." It was obvious that Hitler intended to go further, and a new offensive was being prepared in the West.

By this time, the conspiracy of the generals was planned, later named after the town in which they met. The plan of the conspirators provided for the removal of Hitler from power and the conclusion of peace in November 1939. However, Hitler managed to seize the initiative. The Chief of Staff, General Walter von Brauchitsch , called by himhumbly listened to the scolding of the Fuhrer, who reviled the entire generals for cowardice and defeatism. Insults and threats rained down on the heads of talented military leaders. Hitler shouted that his sense of dignity and faith in the commitment of the army to the ideas of National Socialism were undermined. It was another moral victory for Hitler over his generals. The plans of the conspirators remained unrealized. A few days later, on November 8, 1939, another attempt was made in Munich on the life of the Fuhrer (see "Bürgerbraukeller").

Cubringer

(Zubgirpdeg), special agents-informers who supplied various information to the SD security service.

Zuckmayer, Carl

(Ziktauer), German writer, playwright. Born December 27, 1896 in Nachenheim. Member of the 1st World War. The Zukmaierusatirical play “Captain Köpenek” (1931), which ridiculed the mores of the Prussian militarists, brought wide fame. In 1938, after the implementation of the Anschluss, Zuckmayer emigrated to the United States, where he continued to engage in literary activities. After the end of World War II he returned to Europe.

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Chamberlain, Neville

(СІіатэгІаіп), (1869-1940), statesman of Great Britain, one of the leaders of the Conservative Party. Born March 18, 1869 in Edgbaston, Birmingham. Educated at a privileged school in Rugby and Birmingham College. Engaged in entrepreneurial activities. Lord Mayor of Birmingham 1915-16. Since December 1918 Member of Parliament from the Conservative Party. In 1922-23 Minister of Posts, in 1923, 1924-29, 1931 Minister of Health, in 1923-24, 1931-37 Minister of Finance. From 1937-40 Chamberlain was Prime Minister and leader of the Conservative Party. Together with Hitler, Mussolini and Daladier, Chamberlain signed the Munich Agreement

1938, which became the prologue to the 2nd World War. The failure of the policy of appeasement pursued by the Chamberlain government led to anyone that Britain entered World War II under extremely difficult conditions. In May 1940, Chamberlain was forced to resign as prime minister, remaining (until September 1940) in the coalition government of Winston Churchill. Chamberlain died on November 9, 1940 at Heckfield, near Reading.

Chamberlain, Houston Stewart

(Sgіatbegіаіp), (1855-1927), English writer, sociologist, philosopher, forerunner of Nazi ideology. Ro

Born September 9, 1855 in Southsea, Hampshire, England, in the family of a British admiral. He studied natural sciences in Geneva, aesthetics and philosophy in Dresden. Became an ardent admirer of Richard Wagner. Having married the composer's daughter, Eva Wagner, Chamberlain settled in Bayreuth in 1908, becoming much more of a fanatic of everything German than the Germans themselves. During the 1st World War, he published numerous anti-British articles in the German press, for which he received the nickname "English Changeling" in his homeland. Chamberlain's ideological concepts later found a continuation in Hitler's theories set forth in Mein Kampf. Chamberlain died on January 9, 1927.

Chamberlain with the Munich Agreement in hand upon his arrival in England

Chamberlain's main work, which brought him scandalous fame, was Fundamentals of the 19th Century (Oie Oripsiiaden sans peingebennien ZabrünbegTv) published in Munich in 1899. Chamberlain's rationalistic interpretation of European history was explained by the author's negative attitude towards Christianity in general, aristocratic contempt for the masses, and excessive romanticized perception of the Germans as a nation destined to rule the world. Having set himself the task of revealing the foundations on which the 19th century rested, Chamberlain wrote that European culture was the result of a fusion of five components: the art, literature and philosophy of ancient Greece; the legal system and forms of government of Ancient Rome; Christianity in its Protestant version; the resurgent creative Teutonic spirit; and the repulsively destructive influence of Jews and Judaism in general.

In the 1st volume of his book, Chamberlain examines the events before 1200, the legacy of the ancient world. With Hellenism came an unprecedented flowering of human intellect, writes Chamberlain. - The Greeks created everywhere - in language, religion, politics, philosophy, science, history, geography. The pinnacle of this creative spirit was Homer. But the legacy of the Hellenes also turned out to be dark sides: cruel short-sighted democracies, the absence of high politics, outdated morality and the decline of religion. The world is indebted to the Romans for delivering it from Semitic-Arab enslavement and allowing "Indo-Teutonic Europe to become the beating heart and thinking brain of all mankind." Greece, unlike Rome, according to Chamberlain, gravitated toward Asia. But many have been confused and puzzled by the fact that despite a two thousand year legacy, Rome was unable to resist the collapse of its vast territory. “The experience of the energetic Indo-European race was revised and brilliantly used by the mixed West Asian nations, which again led to the destruction of the unity of its characteristic features.”

Chamberlain then turned to the heirs of antiquity. Immediately had to face, he wrote, with the study of racial problems. He spoke about the need to show courage and forethought in order to safely slip "between the Scylla of science of the almost inaccessible and the Charybdis of changeable and unfounded generalizations." Rome shifted the center of gravity of civilization towards the West, unconsciously completing an act of global significance. But Rome left behind an incredible hodgepodge of different types and races. In the midst of this chaos of peoples (voeikersiaos) were the Jews, the only race that managed to preserve the purity of blood. History has chosen the Aryans as a force that opposes the tiny but influential Jewish nation. “At the present time, these two forces, the Jews and the Aryans, no matter how the recent chaos clouded their future, remain against each other, no longer as enemies or friends, but, as before, as eternal adversaries.” “Nothing is more convincing,” Chamberlain wrote, “than the self-consciousness of a nation. A person belonging to a certain pure race will never lose this feeling. Race raises a person above himself, endows him with extraordinary, almost supernatural energy, singles him out as an individual from a chaotic mixture of peoples gathered from all over the world. Thick blood, invisibly flowing in the veins, will bring a stormy flowering of life, will bring the future. The main secret of the story is that the pureblood race becomes sacred. The rootless and non-national chaos of the last days of the Roman Empire became a pernicious, almost fatal circumstance, and it was the Aryans who had to correct this disastrous situation. “Nothing is more convincing,” Chamberlain wrote, “than the self-consciousness of a nation. A person belonging to a certain pure race will never lose this feeling. Race raises a person above himself, endows him with extraordinary, almost supernatural energy, singles him out as an individual from a chaotic mixture of peoples gathered from all over the world. Thick blood, invisibly flowing in the veins, will bring a stormy flowering of life, will bring the future. The main secret of the story is that the pureblood race becomes sacred. The rootless and non-national chaos of the last days of the Roman Empire became a pernicious, almost fatal circumstance, and it was the Aryans who had to correct this disastrous situation. “Nothing is more convincing,” Chamberlain wrote, “than the self-consciousness of a nation. A person belonging to a certain pure race will never lose this feeling. Race raises a person above himself, endows him with extraordinary, almost supernatural energy, singles him out as an individual from a chaotic mixture of peoples gathered from all over the world. Thick blood, invisibly flowing in the veins, will bring a stormy flowering of life, will bring the future. The main secret of the story is that the pureblood race becomes sacred. The rootless and non-national chaos of the last days of the Roman Empire became a pernicious, almost fatal circumstance, and it was the Aryans who had to correct this disastrous situation. Race raises a person above himself, endows him with extraordinary, almost supernatural energy, singles him out as an individual from a chaotic mixture of peoples gathered from all over the world. Thick blood, invisibly flowing in the veins, will bring a stormy flowering of life, will bring the future. The main secret of the story is that the pureblood race becomes sacred. The rootless and non-national chaos of the last days of the Roman Empire became a pernicious, almost fatal circumstance, and it was the Aryans who had to correct this disastrous situation. Race raises a person above himself, endows him with extraordinary, almost supernatural energy, singles him out as an individual from a chaotic mixture of peoples gathered from all over the world. Thick blood, invisibly flowing in the veins, will bring a stormy flowering of life, will bring the future. The main secret of the story is that the pureblood race becomes sacred. The rootless and non-national chaos of the last days of the Roman Empire became a pernicious, almost fatal circumstance, and it was the Aryans who had to correct this disastrous situation.

In the 2nd volume, Chamberlain analyzes the rebirth of the new German world and the struggle of the greatest forces for world domination. In this struggle, according to Chamberlain, three religious ideals are involved, striving to dominate: the East (Greeks), the North (Aryans) and Rome. In the north of the former Roman Empire, the Aryans succeeded in creating a new culture which is "undoubtedly the greatest that has been achieved by mankind up to the present time." Everything that is not Aryan is alien elements that must be eliminated. The Jews became the heirs of the Roman racial chaos; the Aryan race was responsible for the spiritual salvation of mankind. All the achievements of science, industry, political economy and art were stimulated and moved forward by the Aryans. Thus, the 19th century rested on a solid Aryan foundation.

Two main themes run throughout Chamberlain's book: the Aryans as creators and bearers of civilization, and the Jews as a negative racial force, a destructive and degenerate factor in history. Idealizing pure-blooded Aryans, Chamberlain considered them as the only pillar of world development. The healthy and courageous children of nature, the Aryans, who conquered the dying Roman Empire, revived Western civilization and introduced into it a previously unknown idea of ​​​​freedom.

As opposed to the creative genius of the Aryans, Chamberlain put forward the crude civilization of the Jews, who, in his opinion, were strangers who threatened to occupy a disproportionate place in the life of Germany in the 19th century. The Jews deserved to be condemned, not from a position of low hatred or suspicion, but from the standpoint of the unattainable heights of Aryan superiority. .Almost all prominent and truly free people, wrote Chamberlain, from Tiberius to Bismarck, considered the presence of Jews in their midst as a social and political danger.

Chamberlain calls the birth of Christ the most important date in human history. “Neither wars, nor changes of dynasties, nor natural cataclysms, nor discoveries possess even a fraction of the significance that could be compared with the short earthly life of a Galilean.” But it should be obvious to everyone, he wrote, that Christ was not a Jew, there was not a drop of Jewish blood in him, and those who called him a Jew were simply ignorant or hypocritical people.

Chamberlain's Fundamentals became extremely popular in Germany after Emperor Wilhelm II called his work a monograph of the greatest importance. Critics enthusiastically praised the book for its brilliant, supreme eloquence, great erudition and extraordinary insight of the author. In England, however, this book was subjected to fierce attacks: it was either ridiculed or vilified with harsh abuse. Chamberlain was called "a street preacher, dressed either in the toga of a Roman orator, or in the cassock of a Christian priest." His work has been said to be "the hangover burp of a drunken shoemaker." Chamberlain's work has been regarded as nothing less than "a deft synthesis of Schopenhauer and Gobineau, reflecting a cruder and more brazen assertion of the mystical kinship of the Aryans and Divine Providence."

American adherents of the Nordic school proclaimed Chamberlain the greatest architect of the Nordic theory, to which Theodore Roosevelt objected that Chamberlain's theory comes from stupid hatred and that his “brilliant blunders for a normal person look like absolute madness, a reflection of an abnormal psyche ... He likes Dadid, and on this basis he immediately 

makes him Aryan. He likes Michelangelo, Dante or Leonardo da Vinci, and immediately reports that they are Aryans. He does not like Napoleon and therefore claims that Napoleon is the true representative of racial chaos.

Hitler's racial theories set out in Mein Kampf are largely based on the arbitrary provisions of Chamberlain's Fundamentals. Although Hitler does not mention his name anywhere, and most likely did not read his monograph, since he was unlikely to be able to penetrate the intricacies of the author's metaphysics, it is likely that he absorbed Chamberlain's theory indirectly. One way or another, the theses about the superiority of the Aryan race and the "Jewish danger", expressed in a simpler and cruder form, became the leitmotif of Mein Kampf.

"Black Wednesday"

Under this name, the day of the signing of the Munich Agreement of 1938, which marked the beginning of the occupation of Czechoslovakia by German troops , entered Western historiography .

"Black Shirts"

The common name for members of the SS units who wore black uniforms.

"Black Order"

see SS.

"Black Reichswehr"

Made in Germany in the early 1920s. reserve units of the Reichswehr, not provided for by the Versailles Treaty of 1919. They were recruited from numerous paramilitary organizations and unions that arose after World War I, for example, the Volunteer Corps, Steel Helmet, etc. As of September 1923, the “black Reichswehr” consisted of 4 regiments ( 12 thousand people), 4 separate battalions (6 thousand) and several special detachments (railway, automobile, etc.).

"Black Front"

(Zuschage Egopi), an organization of supporters of the socialist path of development in the Nazi Party, created in May 1930 by Otto Strasser and Walter Stennes after disagreements with Hitler. The headquarters of the front was in Prague. Strasser's supporters considered themselves "the true bearers of the National Socialist ideals" and led the struggle of the Nazi emigration against Hitler's dictates in the party.

Churchill, Winston Leonard

Spencer

(SKigsKіІІ), (1874-1965), British statesman and politician, leader of the Conservative Party, prime minister in 1940-45. Born November 30, 1874 at Blenim, near Woodstock, Oxfordshire, a descendant of the Dukes of Marlborough. He was educated at the privileged school of Harrow and at the military cavalry school. In 1896-98 he served in India. During the Boer War of 1899-1902 he was a war correspondent in South Africa. In 1900 Churchill was elected to Parliament from the Conservative Party. In 1904, for careerist reasons, he joined the Liberal Party. In 1906-08 Deputy Minister of the Colonies, in 1901-10 Minister of Trade, in 1910-11 Minister of the Interior. In 1911 Churchill became Secretary of the Navy. In 1917-18 Minister of War Supplies in the cabinet of Lloyd George. In 1919-21 Minister of War and Minister of Aviation. In the 20s. Churchill returned to the Conservative Party and from 1924 became its deputy in Parliament. In 1924-29 Minister of the Treasury in Baldwin's cabinet. In the 30s. Churchill actively opposed the foreign policy course of Baldwin-Chamberlain to appease the Nazis, considering it short-sighted and extremely risky. After Britain entered World War II in September 1939, Churchill was appointed Secretary of the Navy. In May 1940 after the resignationChamberlain, Churchill became Prime Minister of the coalition government and engaged in the restructuring of the entire life of the country for waging war with Germany. Signed an agreement with the USSR on joint actions against Nazi Germany (July 1941) and an agreement on alliance in the war against Germany (May 1942). Churchill took part in the Tehran (1943), Crimean (1945) and Potsdam (1945) conferences. In July 1945, after the defeat of the Conservatives in the parliamentary elections, Churchill's government resigned. In 1951-55 he again served as prime minister, then, having retired, he retired from political activity. He left several books of the historical and memoir genre; winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (1953). He died January 24, 1965 in London.

Four year plan

Hitler's plan for the reorganization of the economic life of Germany with the aim of transferring it to a military footing. It was announced on September 9, 1936 during the celebration of the next congress of the Nazi Party in Nuremberg. On behalf of Hitler, the Minister of the Interior of Bavaria, Adolf Wagner, spoke:

“I [Hitler] announce to you the introduction of a new four-year plan. Within four years, Germany must become completely independent of the supply of raw materials and equipment from foreign countries, which can be produced thanks to German capabilities with the help of our chemical, engineering and mining industries. The great restructuring of the German raw materials industry will provide employment for the population. The implementation of this plan will take place thanks to the energy and strength of National Socialism. At the same time, it should be added that Germany cannot refuse to fulfill its colonial demands. The right of the German people to life is as unshakable as the right of other peoples...

The implementation of this plan is the only question of our energy and determination. The National Socialists never accepted the word "impossible".

Hitler placed the responsibility for the implementation of the four-year plan on Hermann Göring, appointing him Commissioner for Planning. In order to obtain the foreign exchange that Germany needed for rearmament, a new concern, Hermann Göring, was created, a huge trust for the extraction of iron ore and coal, whose declared capital rose from 5 million to 400 million marks. However, over the next two years it became apparent that Goering was an amateur in economic matters, which gradually brought him into conflict with the conservative president of the Reichsbank and the Minister of Economics, Jamimar Schacht,who, due to disagreements with Goering in matters of financing, on November 15, 1937, resigned from the post of Minister of Economics, and in January 1939 from the post of President of the Reichsbank. These positions were taken by the Fuhrer's economic adviser Walter Funk.

The implementation of the four-year plan was carried out after the start of World War II, but already with the use of forced labor of prisoners of war and prisoners of concentration camps.

Sh

"Shamil"

(“БсІіатіГ”), the code name for the paratrooper operation in the Maikop area. The military directive of July 11, 1942 stated that the purpose of the operation was to capture the Maikop oil fields and oil refineries.

Charlemagne

French division of the SS troops, created in 1944.

Mine, I l mar

(BSISASY), (1877-1970), president of the Reichsbank and economic adviser for the rearmament of Germany. Born January 22, 1877 in Tinglef, Schleswig (now Tinglev, Denmark). He studied medicine in Kiel, German philology in Berlin and political economy in Munich. He worked at the Dresden Bank, then headed his own bank. During the 1st World War, Schacht worked in the economic department of the German occupation authorities in Belgium. In 1916 he became director of the German National Bank. Being selfish, ambitious and very capable, he quickly gained a high reputation in banking circles. Despite the fact that, according to his convictions, Schacht was a monarchist, in 1919 he participated in the creation of the German Democratic Party. In 1923, as a specialist in monetary policy of the Ministry of Finance, played a major role in curbing inflation in the country and stabilizing the national currency. In December 1923 Schacht was appointed president of the Reichsbank. In March 1930, he resigned his post in protest against the adoption of the plan.Young on reparation payments and increase in interest rates otherwise 1 early loans.

In 1930, after reading the contents of Hitler's book "Mein Kampf", Schacht came to the conclusion that this is exactly the politician who is able to save Germany by "creating a strong economy in a strong state." This belief was strengthened in him even more when the Nazis won the first a major victory in the elections on September 14, 1930 and became the second largest party in the Reichstag in the number of deputies.When Hitler needed financial support, Schacht managed to attract the attention of Rhineland industrialists to him.On October 11, 1931, Schacht became a member of the Harzburg Front, which opposed the Weimar Republic.“I am not a National Socialist,” Schacht declared, “but the basic ideas of National Socialism carry a great deal of truth in themselves.” He managed to ensure Hitler the support of financial and industrial magnates on his path to political power.

In March 1933, a grateful Hitler appointed Schacht (instead of Hans Luther) for the second time as president of the Reichsbank. From August 1934 to November 1937, Schacht, being also the Reich Minister of Economics, played an important role in the implementation of the rearmament program, making full use of the resources of the Reichsbank for this.

In public speeches, Schacht constantly declared his support for Hitler, but in fact he began to have deep doubts about him, aggravated by the events of the Night of the Long Knives, the resignation of some members of the generals (see the Blomberg-Fritsch case) and the intensified persecution of Jews. Nevertheless, he continued to work in the belief that Hitler's economic course was the same as his own. In November 1937, Schacht left the posts of Minister of Economics (he was replaced by Funk) and Chief Commissioner for Military Economic Affairs. Hitler left him the post of minister without portfolio (1937-1943), and in March 1938 he was again appointed president of the Reichsbank.

The day after the failure of the July conspiracy of 1944 , Schacht was arrested on suspicion of involvement in the conspiracy and until the end of the war he was in the concentration camps of Ravensbrück, Flossenbürg and Dachau. In 1945 he was captured by the Americans in Pustertal, Austria.

In 1946, Schacht appeared before the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, but was found not guilty and released on September 2, 1948. He died in Munich on June 3, 1970.

Schwanenfeld, Ulrich-Wilhelm Schwerin von (VsІtѵѵapepTeІsІ), (1902-1944), member of the German Resistance movement. Born in Copenhagen in the family of a German diplomat. After the Nazis came to power, Schwanenfeld joined a group of opponents of the Nazi regime, which included Hans Oster, Hans von Dohnanyi and Adam von Trott zu Soltz, whose goal was to liberate Germany from National Socialism after Hitler's death. In 1939, Schwanenfeld was drafted into the army, served as an adjutant to General Erwin von Witzleben, one of the participants in the conspiracy against Hitler. After the failure of the July conspiracy / 944, Schwanenfeld was arrested and, by the verdict of the People's Tribunalexecuted 8 September 1944.

"Schwartz"

(“Bsііѵvagg”), the code name for one of the four military operations against the Allied landings in Italy, according to Hitler's directive of 31 July 1943.

Schwartz, Franc

(ZsKvagg), (1875-1947), Reichsleiter, chief treasurer of the NSDAP. Born November 27, 1875 in Günzburg. Since 1914 in the army. In 1922 he joined the NSDAP in Munich. From 1925 to 1945 he was the "Reichschatzmeister" - the imperial treasurer. In 1929 he was elected to the Munich city council, and since 1933 he was a member of the Reichstag. Together with Max Amann , Schwartz helped Hitler settle the scandal over the death of Geli Raubal. In 1935 he became a Reichsleiter. In 1943, Schwarz was awarded the title of ObergruppenführerSS. In 1945 he burned all party financial documents in the "Brown House" in Munich.

"Schwarz Corps"

(Oaz Zsipvagge Ko grz - "Black Corps"), a weekly newspaper, an official organ of the SS. In fact, it was the personal mouthpiece of Heinrich Himmler, reflecting his own views and ideas about racial doctrine, the “purity of Nordic blood”, etc. Jews and praised various aspects of the activities of Himmler's "black order" - the SS.

Schweinfurt raids

Massed American air raids carried out in August-December 1943 on the small German industrial center of Schweinfurt in Bavaria, with the aim of destroying enterprises producing ball bearings. The first raid took place on 17 August, with 229 heavy bombers taking part. The Americans lost 36 planes that day. Two months later, during the second raid (291 bombers), the Germans shot down 60 American aircraft. In the future, the bombing of Schweinfurt was less impressive. In total, the Americans made 16 raids on Schweinfurt until the end of 1943.

Schwerin von Krosig, Graf Lutz

(Zsііѵѵegіp ѵop Kgozidk), (1887-1952), finance minister in Hitler's first cabinet. Born August 22, 1887 in Rathmannsdorf, Anhalt. He studied at the Rossleben monastery school, then studied law and political sciences in Lausanne and Oxford. In 1909 he began legal practice. For a year he served as a volunteer in the 2nd Pomeranian Lancers. During the 1st World War he was wounded, awarded the Iron Cross II and I degree. After the end of the war, he became a government official in Hindenburg, Upper Silesia. In 1921-32 he worked in various positions in the Ministry of Finance.

On June 2, 1932, Chancellor Franz von Lalen appointed von Krosig as finance minister in his coalition government. He held this post until the last days of the Third Reich. Hitler entrusted von Krosig with the financial support of Germany's rearmament. In February 1935, a special law was issued by the Minister of Finance, ordering to increase funding for the rearmament of the country through loans.

Von Krosig strongly supported Hitler's anti-Semitic policies. On November 10, 1938, after the events of Kristallnacht, von Krosig declared: "We must do everything possible to push the Jews to other countries."

In May 1945, Admiral Karl Dönitz, who became Hitler's successor, appointed von Krosig foreign minister. In 1949, von Krosig appeared before the International Military Tribunal, was found guilty of war crimes and sentenced to 10 years in prison. He was released in 1951, a year before his death.

Schellenberg, Walter

(ZseyІІІеггд), (1900-1952), SS Brigadeführer, Head of the VI Department of the Main Directorate of Imperial Security (RSHA). Born January 16, 1900 in Saarbrücken. Graduated from the Faculty of Law of the University of Bonn. One of the teachers persuaded him in 1923 to join the NSDAP and the SS, explaining that this would open the way for a career for him. Schellenberg's reports on the development of German legislation attracted the attention of Reinhard Heydrich, who offered him a job in his department. From September 1939 to June 1941, Schellenberg headed department VI E, which dealt with counterintelligence. Under his leadership

Walter Schellenberg

many covert operations were developed. In November 1939, his employees kidnapped two British agents in Holland, who were credited with attempting to assassinate Hitler. In 1940, under his leadership, the so-called. “Sonderfandungslist" - a list of people who fled to Great Britain and were subject to immediate arrest in the event of landing on the British Isles. On June 22, 1941, Schellenberg was appointed to the post of head of the VI Directorate of the RSHA (“Auslaid SS”).

On July 10, 1942, Schellenberg issued a directive that defined a wide and detailed list of information required by the center from foreign agents of the SD:

• foreign policy objectives of the state

• political relations with other states,

• embassies, missions and consulates of this state abroad,

• embassies, missions and consulates accredited in this state,

• foreign propaganda activities in a given country,

• propaganda activities of this country abroad,

• international organizations, - intelligence services, - the work of foreign intelligence services on the territory of a given country,

• principles of the general domestic policy of the state and the political situation,

• position of the ruling circles,

• position of supreme power (president, king, etc.),

• domestic policy of the government and local administration.

At the very end of the war, Schellenberg, through his agents, organized negotiations between Heinrich Himmler and representatives of the American intelligence services on the conditions for concluding a separate peace. At the Nuremberg trials , he was sentenced to 6 years in prison. Released in 1950. Published a book of memoirs. Schellenberg died in Italy in 1952.

Sheman, Ludwig

(Bsietapp), (1852-1938), German nationalist writer. Born October 16, 1852 in Cologne. He worked in the library of the University of Göttingen. Founded in 1891 the Society of Gobineau. Translated into German the works of Artur deGobino. Sheman was widely known in Germany as a supporter of the racial doctrine. He died February 13, 1938.

Schnerner, Ferdinand

(Zsboerpeg), (1892-1973), Field Marshal of the German Army. Born June 12, 1892 in Munich. Member of the 1st World War, was awarded the medal "For Valor". He took part in the suppression of the "Beer Putsch" of 1923, although he sympathized with the Nazi movement and was a member of several nationalist organizations. Subsequently, he became an ardent admirer of Hitler and one of his most devoted high-ranking officers. In 1942-43 Schörner commanded the 19th Mountain Rifle Corps in Lapland, then, until February 1, 1944, the 40th Panzer Corps, which fought in the Ukraine. On April 7, 1944, he was appointed commander in chief of Army Group South, on July 25, 1944 - commander in chief of Army Group North. January 16, 1945 Schörner became commander in chief central grouping of troops.

In the last days of World War II, Hitler awarded Schörner the rank of Field Marshal General and appointed him to command the already almost defeated group of troops that covered Berlin. After the last of his troops surrendered, Schörner flew to the American zone of occupation in Austria, from where he was extradited to the Soviet command. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison, released in April 1955, was the first among the German field marshals who were allowed to return to the West. Germany. In 1957, a Munich court again sentenced Schörner to 4 and a half years in prison as guilty of the deaths of thousands of German soldiers. Schörner died on July 6, 1973 in Munich.

Schicklgruber, Alois

(Zsіchіskeіdgizher), (1837-1903), father of Adolf Hitler . Born June 7, 1837 in Strones, Lower Austria. Illegitimate son of seasonal worker Johann Georg Hiedler and peasant woman Anna Maria Schicklgruber. His parents got married only 5 years after his birth in May 1842 in the town of Döllersheim. Being born out of wedlock, Alois bore his mother's surname until almost 40 years old. He was brought up in the family of his uncle Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, who in 1876 adopted the already adult Alois. At the beginning of 1877, 12 years before the birth of Adolf, Alois took the name Hitler.

After leaving his uncle's house, Alois began working as an apprentice for a shoemaker at the age of 13. At the age of 18, he got a job in the Imperial Customs Service and until the end of his life he served as a customs officer in Braunau and other cities of Lower Austria. This position allowed him to climb the social ladder, unlike his peasant ancestors. In a magnificent uniform with shining gold buttons, in a velvet cap with a gold piping and a revolver at his belt, Alois gave the impression of a respectable representative of almost the middle class.

The personal life of Alois Shikl Igruber was closed and unhappy. In 1864 he married Anna Glasl, the daughter of a colleague who had been ill for a long time and died in 1883. A month later, he married Franziska Matzelberger, a young maid in a hotel, who had given birth to a son before their marriage. This marriage was also unsuccessful - Francis died of tuberculosis. January 7, 1885, having received a pastoral permission to marry a second cousin, Alois married Clara Pölzl, who was 23 years younger than him. She became the mother of Adolf Hitler.

In 1895, when Adolf was six years old, Alois retired due to age. For 4 years, their family constantly moved from place to place in the vicinity of Linz, where Alois was breeding bees and drinking in rural inns. Hot-tempered and despotic Alois constantly tyrannized his own family. Adolf more than once experienced the blows of his father's cane and belt. He often had to drag his drunken father home from the local hotel. There were constant conflicts between 64-year-old Alois and 12-year-old Adolf. Wanting his son to become an official, Alois was shocked to learn that Adolf preferred art. The father was furious: “As long as I'm alive - no way!” Alois died suddenly in Leonding on January 3, 1903 from a lung hemorrhage. His widow was left with two children and a tiny pension.

Adolf Hitler's ill-wishers constantly tried to stick the name Schicklgruber on him and venomously hinted that he did not take this surname, since the phrase "Heil Schicklgruber!" lack of sound. This was a hint that Adolf Hitler's grandfather was a Jew, there were insufficient grounds for such a statement.

Schirach, Baldur von

(VsIіgasI), (1907-1974), leader of the German youth, head of the Hitler Youth organization in 1933-40. Born March 9, 1907 in Berlin. His father was an officer in the guards regiment of Wilhelm II, later retired and became director of the theater, first in Weimar, then in Vienna. Schirach's mother was American. Baldur von Schirach grew up in an atmosphere of theatre, music and literature, he showed early poetic talent. At the age of 10 he joined the German Youth Union. In 1924, having moved to Munich, von Schirach began to study art history and German studies. In 1925 he joined the NSDAP and the SA. In 1928 he headed the National Socialist German Student Union,proving himself in this position as a skillful organizer. In 1931, Hitler appointed him head of youth affairs for the Nazi Party. In 1932 von Schirach organized

Baldur von Schirach talks with the leaders of the Hitler Youth

led the 100,000th youth procession in Potsdam in front of the Fuhrer. On June 1, 1933, at the age of 26, he became the youth leader of the German Reich, skillfully attracting more and more members to the ranks of the Hitler Youth. However, von Schirach's enemies gradually began a discrediting campaign against him, ridiculing his effeminacy and femininity, accusing him of being addicted to "girls' bedrooms", calling him "a Berliner who moved into leather Bavarian pants." As a result of these intrigues, Hitler in July 1941 appointed a background Schirach to the less important post of Gauleiter of Vienna, which he held until 1945. Von Schirach participated in the deportation of Austrian Jews to concentration camps .he was found guilty of crimes against humanity and sentenced to 20 years in prison. Released in 1966. In 1967 he published in Hamburg a book of memoirs, I Believed Hitler. Von Schirach died in Kreve on August 8, 1974.

Shearer, William

(Zhierer), (1904-?), American journalist and historian, author of many books, articles and radio reports about the Third Reich. From 1925 to 1932, being his own correspondent for the Chicago Tribune newspaper in Western Europe, and then the chief of the Berlin bureau of the American news service, Shearer was a direct witness to Hitler's rise to power. He was at the very epicenter of many events that took place in the Third Reich, which allowed him to collect unique material for his books and articles: "Berlin Diary" (New York, 1941), "Fly the fall of the Third Reich" (New York, 1960) and etc.

Schlageter, Albert Leo

(Zsyadeyeg), (1894-1923), one of the main "martyrs" in the Nazi martyrology. Born August 12, 1894 in Schönau. He was a member of the "Volunteer Corps" on the territory of the Ruhr, occupied by the French after the 1st World War. He was arrested by the French authorities, accused of espionage and sabotage, and executed on May 26, 1923. Nazi propaganda used Schlageter's name in their own interests as a symbol of a national hero. Poems and songs were dedicated to him, Hans Jost wrote the play Schlageter (1933).

Schleicher, Kurt von

(ZsbІeіsIeg), (1882-1934), the last chancellor of the Weimar Republic. Born April 7, 1882 in Brandenburg in an old Prussian Junker family. In 1903 he joined the 3rd Guards Infantry Regiment under the command of General Paul von Hindenburg. In 1913 he was invited to the rank of captain in the General Staff, where he worked during the 1st World War. He was a close friend of Oskar von Hindenburg. In 1918, von Schleicher became adjutant to chief quartermaster Wilhelm Gröner. He took an active part in the creation of units of the "Volunteer Corps".In February 1926, von Schleicher became head of the land forces department of the Reichswehr ministry. In 1929, von Schleicher was promoted to the rank of major general. He held various government posts, including being the Minister of Defense. December 3, 1932, replacing the retired Franz von Papen, von Schleicher became Chancellor of the Reich. His half-hearted attempts to unite the actions of the trade unions and the Reichswehr in order to stop the Nazis rushing to power came to nothing. As a result of behind-the-scenes political intrigues of the former Chancellor von Papen and Hitler, President Hindenburg accepted von Schleicher's resignation and on January 30, 1933, proclaimed Adolf Hitler Chancellor. Hitler, who did not forget his political opponent , brutally took revenge on von Schleicher during the events of the Night of the Long Knives.On June 30, 1934, several people broke into the villa of the retired chancellor, mortally wounded his wife and killed him, as was later reported, while attempting armed resistance.

Kurt von Schleicher

Rudiger Schleicher

Schleicher, Rudiger

(ЗсІіІеісНэг), (1895-1945), a member of the German resistance movement. Born January 14, 1895 in Württemberg in the family of a civil servant. Member of the 1st World War, was wounded. He worked in the Ministry of Transport and Communications, then at the University of Berlin, where he became close to many opponents of the Nazi regime. After the failure of the July conspiracy of 1944 , Schleicher was arrested as an accomplice and, by the verdict of the People's Tribunal , was shot on the night of April 22-23, 1945.

Schmeling, Max

(Zsіzteііpd), (“Siegfried”) (1905-?), famous German heavyweight boxer, world champion in 1930-32. Born September 28, 1905 in Brandenburg. In 1926 he won the German boxing championship (light weight), in 1927 the European championship, and in 1928 the German championship (heavy weight). June 12, 1930 Schmeling won the world heavyweight title in New York. 

York by defeating American boxer Jack Sharkey. In total, during his sports career, he spent 70 fights, 56 of which he won, lost 10 and drew 4. On June 21, 1932 Sharkey stripped Schmeling of his world title. On June 19, 1936, Schmeling once again demonstrated his sportsmanship to the world by knocking out American champion Joe Louis.

With the rise of the Nazis to power, Schmeling's name became rampantly used by Nazi propaganda. His sporting achievements were presented as a triumph of a representative of the Nordic race. After the outbreak of World War II, Schmeling volunteered for the army. May 20, 1941 he, as part of the parachute regiment, took part in the landing on the island of Crete. After the war, Schmeling went into business.

Schmidt, Paul

(Zsііtіsіі:), (1899-1970), German diplomat and translator. Born June 23, 1899 in Berlin. In 1924-45 he was head of the secretariat and senior translator of the German Foreign Office. In 1935-45 Schmidt was Hitler's personal interpreter during the reception of foreign government delegations. September 29-30, 1938 was the official translator at the Munich Conference.

After the 2nd World War, Schmidt published several books of memoirs, which provide numerous details from the life and work of high-ranking officials of the Third Reich. In 1952 he headed the Munich Institute of Foreign Languages. Schmidt died on April 21, 1970 in Munich.

Meeting of Mussolini and Daladier during the Munich Agreement 1938. Behind - Hitler and his personal translator Paul Schmidt

Schmidt, Paul Karl

(BsGіtіsІі), (1911-?), executive director of the News Service of the Third Reich and head of the press department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1940-45. After World War II, under the pseudonym Paul Karel, Schmidt published a series of books on the history of the war, including On the Eve of Barbarossa (1963) and Hitler Goes East: 1941-1943 (1965).

Schmitt, Carl

(VsITiY), German lawyer, political scientist and publicist. Born July 11, 1888 in Plettenberg, Westphalia. In 1910 he received his doctorate. He taught law at the universities of Bonn (1922), Berlin (1926), Cologne (1933) and again Berlin (1933). He was an implacable opponent of the Weimar constitution and the post-war activities of the Reichstag. On May 1, 1933, Schmitt joined the NSDAP and became a theorist and political observer of the Nazi state.

Schmitt, Kurt

(VsііtіI), (1886-1950), Reich Minister of Economics and Finance in Hitler's first cabinet. Born October 7, 1886 in Heidelberg in the family of a doctor. In 1905-07 he studied law at the University of Munich. In 1911, he volunteered as a lieutenant in the Munich Infantry Regiment. He was seriously wounded during the 1st World War. He was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st class. In 1921 Schmitt became CEO of a large insurance company. In 1932 Chancellor Franz von Papen appointed him finance minister. On June 29, 1933, Hitler invited Schmitt to his own government for the same position. Schmittumer November 11, 1950 in Heidelberg. ■Y"

Schmundt, Rudolf

(ZsbtipsN), (1896-1944), major general of the German army. Born August 13, 1896 in Metz. Personnel soldier. In 1938 he was a lieutenant colonel, in 1939 a colonel, in 1942 a major general, in 1943 a lieutenant general, in 1944 an infantry general. For many years he was Hitler's adjutant in the ground forces. From October 1942 to June 1944 he also headed the personnel department of the ground forces. Schmundt attended all of Hitler's military meetings, kept detailed records of what was happening, which were confiscated from the non-allies after the war as evidence . October 1944.

Sholl, Hans

(VsboII), (1918-1943) and Sophia (1921-1943), students of the University of Munich, members of the underground organization

in mid-February 1943 , brother and sister Scholl took part in an unprecedented action - an anti-Nazi protest demonstration on the streets of Munich. They also scattered leaflets calling for the overthrow of Hitler from the balcony of the university. Among other members of the organization, they were arrested by the Gestapo and by the verdict of the People's Tribunal were executed.

Assistant Fuhrer Schmundt in the back seat next to Keitel. Driven by Hitler's personal chauffeur Erich Kempka

Scholztz-Klink, Gertrude

(ZsKoІіg-Kііpk), leader of the women's Nazi movement. Born February 9, 1902 in Adelsheim. She worked in the Berlin branch of the German Red Cross. In 1934 she was appointed to the post of head of the imperial women's Nazi movement - the Reichsfrauenführerin. She also headed the Women's Bureau of the German Labor Front and the Women's Labor Office.

Span, Otmar

(Zrapp), (1878-1950), Austrian economist, sociologist, supporter of the German idea of ​​a corporate state. Born October 1, 1878 in Vienna. He was a professor at the University of Brno (1909) and Vienna (1919). Influenced by the romanticism of Adam Muller, Fichte and List, Spahn developed a plan for the economic and theoretical so-called. "sociological universalism" as opposed to the theories of Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Spahn emphasized the relation of the individual to class and nation. He supported the idea of ​​an interventionist state capable of protecting the rights of peasants and the middle class from corporations and cartels. Such a state, he said, should be run by a new elite, imbued with a romantic feeling, and willing to give young people a real chance to control their own destiny. He rejected scientific Marxism and any kind of liberalism.

Those who agreed with Spahn's theory of the corporate state joined the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany, since the 25th point of the program of this party provided for the creation of corporate and professional chambers. The industrial magnate Fritz Thyssen , who provided financial support to Hitler, shared Spahn's ideas about the corporate structure of society. In 1929 Alfred Rosenberg, who had just founded the League for the Struggle for German Culture,invited Spahn to the University of Munich to give a lecture on the reorganization of German society on a corporate basis. Many provisions of Spahn's theory coincided with the concepts of National Socialism, for example, the cessation of the class struggle, the abolition of private property, consistent nationalism, etc. Spahn died on July 8, 1950 in Neustift.

Spandau

(Zrapsiai), a prison in West Berlin, which contained Nazi criminals convicted at the Nuremberg trials . Badly damaged during the storming of Berlin. It consisted of a central building designed to hold 600 prisoners, surrounded by an internal and external, electrically powered wall with nine concrete towers, on which armed guards were stationed around the clock. Every ten minutes, the guards pressed the button to check the power supply in the prison commandant's office. Entrance and exit was carried out only through the main gate.

Spandau was used exclusively to contain Nazi criminals convicted at the Nuremberg trials. The occupying authorities of the four victorious powers carefully ensured that the prisoners were under strict guard. Each country provided security for a month, appointed a prison commandant, two doctors, cooks and other personnel. The content of the guards and prisoners was paid from the city budget, and later from the federal treasury.

On July 18, 1947, after a 9-month wait for the prison to be prepared, seven prisoners were transferred from Nuremberg to Spandau: Baldur von Schirach (sentenced to 20 years), Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (10 years), Konstantin von Neurath (15 years) , Grand Admiral Erich Raeder(for life), Albert Schleer (20 years), Walter Funk (for life) and Rudolf Less (for life). The prison regime was harsh. Prisoners were allowed twice a day a thirty-minute walk in the open air, one letter (no more than 1200 words) per week to relatives, a small number of selected publications, visitors were strictly limited. The guards were strictly forbidden to talk to the prisoners. The daily routine established once and for all was carefully observed: at 6 o'clock rise, at 22 o'clock lights out.

In 1954, after serving seven years, von Neurath was released from Spandau ahead of schedule. In 1955, after nine years, Raeder, who had a life sentence, was released due to age and poor health. In 1956, after serving a full 10 years, Dönitz received his freedom. In 1957, after 11 years of a life sentence, Funk was released. In 1966, having fully served a 20-year sentence, Speer and Schirach were released. Only Hess remained in prison until his death in 1987. The governments of the United States, Britain and France periodically pressed for his release, but the Soviet Union was against it.

Speer, Albert

(Speer), (1905-1981), Hitler's court architect. Born March 15, 1905 in Mannheim. Studied architecture, was an assistant at the Berlin Technical Institute. In 1931 he joined the NSDAP, and in 1932 - the SS. He was a member of several minor architectural commissions for the construction of the headquarters of the Gauleiter of Berlin, then he was entrusted with the technical support of the gigantic party congress in Tempelhof on May 1, 1933. Speer's masterful use of quickly constructed flagpoles and unusual lighting effects

Albert Speer, 1936

Comrade gave the Nazi mass gatherings a special pompous style. In 1934, he was assigned to develop a project for arranging a site for party congresses in Nuremberg (see Nuremberg Party Congresses}.

The successes of Speer, who was not yet thirty, attracted the attention of Hitler. Following the attention, positions and orders rained down. The Fuhrer, himself a failed architect, saw in Speer the embodiment of his own youthful dreams. He brought a capable architect closer to him, appointed him head of the department of the German Labor Frontand introduced his deputy to the headquarters. In 1937, Speer became the Reich's Chief Inspector for Architecture, with the task of "making Berlin again the real and true capital of the German Reich." Realizing the grandiose plans of Hitler, Speer worked tirelessly: he designed government institutions, stadiums, palaces, monuments and entire super-cities for the future Greater Germany. Speer openly expressed admiration for the ideas of his patron, which other architects called "crazy sentimentality" fit for the last century. Failed student of the Academy

Albert Speer, 1945

mission of arts, Hitler stood for hours chained to the sketches and models of Speer. In 1938 he presented him with the Golden Party Badge.

Speer continued his work after the start of World War II. In 1941 he was elected to the Reichstag. The following year, he was appointed to an important post in the Ministry of Armaments and War Industry in place of Fritz Todt , who died in a plane crash . From that moment on, Speer switched completely from architecture to the military industry. He also held many other important posts: member of the Central Planning Commission, General Inspector of Water and Energy, Director of the Organization Todt, Head of the National Socialist Corps of Drivers andhead of the main party technological department. For some time he was considered the second most important person in the Third Reich and the undisputed dictator of the German military industry. He achieved extraordinary production results despite opposition from other Nazi leaders and despite heavy casualties from Allied bombing. Speer was indirectly aware of the impending assassination attempt on Hitler, but was never closely associated with the July 1944 Plot . unworthy of the genius of his Fuhrer.

Представ перед Международным военным трибуналом в Нюрнберге в 1946, Шпеер оказался единственным из обвиняемых, признавшим свою вину за преступления Третьего рейха. “Этот суд необходим, —заявил он. — В авторитарной системе за такие ужасные преступления все несут общую ответственность”. Любопытны его признания: “Мне кажется, что если бы у Гитлера мог когда-либо быть Друг, этим другом был бы я”. В своих показаниях Шпеер утверждал, что его деятельность была “технологической и экономической”, а не политической, что он был лишь архитектором, и все, что ему было известно о происходящем, это то, что он мог прочитать в газетах. Он признавал, что отвергал жестокость не в силу гуманности, а с практической точки зрения, поскольку излишняя жестокость была бы помехой в его усилиях увеличить производство. Трибунал ограничился тем, что признал “соучастие” Шпеера в программе использования подневольного труда: “В качестве смягчающего обстоятельства, следует признать то, что ... на заключительных этапах войны он был одним из немногих, кто имел смелость сказать Гитлеру, что война проиграна и нужно сделать шаги по предотвращению бессмысленных разрушений промышленных предприятий". Шпеер был признан виновным по пункту 3 (военные преступления) и пункту 4 (преступления против человечности). 1 октября 1946 он был приговорен к 20 годам заключения в берлинской тюрьме Spandau. Released in 1966.

In 1970, Speer published the book "Inside the Third Reich", which gained worldwide fame. He made the first sketches while still in Spandau, secretly taking out pieces, and then compiled the material into a book. This book was recognized as the most outstanding political memoir of all time. The book demonstrates how Hitler's unlimited power was able to combine with the new mechanism provided by modern technology.Speer writes that the Third Reich was actually very far from a monolithic totalitarian state, but was only a fragmented feudal principality controlled by local politicians, such as the cynical propaganda minister Dr. r Goebbels, colorless SS chief Himmler and head of the LuftwaffeGoering. Each defended his own personal interests and strove for his own benefit, not caring about the cost of war. Speer insisted that he did not personally take part in the horrors that his activities contributed to. He admitted that he had made a pact with the devil and realized too late the meaning of his pact.

Speidel, Hans

Shp and del (ZreіsІeІ), (1897-?), General of the Wehrmacht, chief of staff of the occupation forces in France. Born October 28, 1897 in Metzingen, Württemberg. Together with his friend and commander, General Karl Heinrich von Stülpnagel, Speidel was involved in a conspiracy against Hitler. April 15, 1944, Speidel. then Chief of Staff of the 8th Army, was called by his old front-line ally, General Erwin Rommelto France, and was appointed to the post of chief of staff of Army Group B. From that moment on, Rommel's headquarters in France proved to be the nerve center of the conspiracy against Hitler. Speidel and von Stülpnagel jointly tried to draw Rommel into a conspiracy and conclude a separate peace with the Allies, but he, although sympathetic to their aspirations, never played a significant role in this intrigue, which was directed from Berlin. In May 1944, Speidel and von Stülpnagel gave up hope of a truce with the Allies.

After the failure of the July 1944 Plot, Field Marshal Wilhelm Kay

General Hans Speidel

The body removed Speidel from his post . Speidel was arrested, he was personally interrogated by Ern st Kaltenbrunner, but he did not confess to anything and did not betray anyone. The court of honor found him innocent and released him, despite the fact that Keitel told the court that Hitler believed him to be involved in the conspiracy. In 1955 Speidel represented West Germany in NATO. November 22, 1955 he was appointed head of the armed forces of the Ministry of Defense of Germany.

Sperle, Hugo

Sh p e r l e (Zreggie), (1885-1953), Field Marshal General of the Luftwaffe. Born February 2, 1885 in Ludwigsburg, Württemberg, in the family of a brewer. In the army since 1903, he served in the 8th Württemberg Infantry Regiment with the rank of lieutenant. In 1913 - Oberleutnant, in 1914 - Captain. During World War I, he served in aerial reconnaissance. By the end of the war, he was in charge of the Air Observer School in Cologne. After the war he joined the “Volunteer Corps” 1 . In 1919, he became one of 180 former aviators who ended up in the 4,000th officer corpsreichswehr. He served at the headquarters of the 5th military district in Stuttgart (1919-23), in the Ministry of Defense (1923-24), in the 4th infantry division in Dresden (1924-25). In 1928, 

having achieved a transfer to aviation, Sperrle underwent a flight training course at a secret German air base in the Soviet Union near Lipetsk. Then he served in the General Staff and the Ministry of the Reichswehr (1925-29). October 1, 1933 Sperrle was appointed commander of the 8th Infantry Regiment. April 1, 1934 with the rank of oberst (colonel) joined the Luftwaffe, commanded the 1st Air Division. At the same time, he served as commander of the air army stationed near Berlin. After the denunciation of the Versailles Treaty of 1919and Hitler's official statement on March 9, 1935 about the existence of the Luftwaffe, Sperrle took an active part in the construction and organization of the German air force. On October 1, 1935, with the rank of major general, he was appointed commander of the 5th aviation district (Munich). Sperrle played a prominent role during the Spanish Civil War, where German aviation gained its first combat experience. He became the first commander of the famous legion "Condor", created to support the ground units of General Francisco Franco. The tactical developments of the Luftwaffe, tested in Spain, were widely used later during the 2nd World War. Under the leadership of Sperrle, the naval base in Cartagena and the peaceful Spanish city of Guernica were destroyed. 31

18 Zac.1871

Field Marshal Hugo Sperrle

On October 1937, Sperrle handed over command of the Condor Legion to Major General Helmut von Volkmann and returned to Germany as a hero. On November 1, 1937 he was promoted to the rank of General of the Luftwaffe, and on February 1, 1938 he was appointed commander of the 3rd Air Fleet, which he led until the end of his military career.

Sperrle was a man of enormous stature, strong build, with a ferocious expression on his face. Hitler referred to him and Army General Walther von Reichenau as his two "most bestial generals." Sperrle's face, with a heavy lower jaw and a frozen frown, combined with an impressive size, gave him an ominous look.

Sperrle took part in the occupation of Austria (see Anschluss) and the creation on its territory of the 4th air fleet under the command of the former commander of the Austrian Air Force, General Lehr. Sperrle, together with Lehr, led the actions of the Luftwaffe during the occupation of Czechoslovakia.

From the first days of World War II, Sperrle's 3rd Air Fleet took part in the fighting in Poland, supporting the army group of General Wilhelm von Leeb. After the completion of the Polish campaign, the 3rd Air Fleet was transferred to France, where, together with the 2nd Air Fleet (commander A. Kesselring), it provided support to von Rundstedt 's strike army group A. For success in defeating the British Expeditionary Forces during an attempt their evacuation (see Dunkirk operation 1940) Sperrle was awarded the Knight's Cross.

After the capitulation of France on June 21, 1940, Hitler, at a solemn ceremony in Berlin on July 19, awarded Sperrle, as well as Kesselring, Milch and several other army generals, the rank of field marshal.

After Hitler failed to take Britain out of the war through diplomacy, an attempt was made to destroy the Royal Air Force (see “Adlesrangriffe"] Battle of England), but the Sperrle 3rd Air Fleet, which bore the brunt of this operation, having suffered heavy losses, he failed to cope with the task.Due to disagreements that arose in the leadership of the Luftwaffe and contrary to Sperrle's opinion that the main emphasis should be placed on the continued destruction of British fighter aircraft, the Luftwaffe's efforts were transferred to the bombing of English cities, which allowed the British command to quickly restore the strength of their aviation.As a result, the Luftwaffe suffered a crushing defeat and the battle for Britain as a whole was lost.

In his memoirs published after World War II, Churchill wrote: “The [British] Fighter Command was relieved when on September 7 the German attack was transferred to London, from which it was concluded that the enemy had changed his plan. Goering should have stubbornly continued the battle, on which the organization and coherence of the combat power of our aviation at that moment depended ... He made a stupid mistake.

After the 2nd Air Fleet was relocated to Poland in May 1941, Sperrle, having set up his headquarters in Paris, remained the only air commander on the secondary Western Front. The Parisian luxury had a corrupting effect on the brewer's son, he became addicted to idleness and a luxurious life. Albert Speerlater recalled: “The field marshal’s thirst for pleasure and ostentatiousness grew literally with every second and almost competed with the sybaritism of his boss Goering. In addition, he almost did not concede to him in obesity. Enjoying life, Sperrle began to neglect his official duties, as a result of which the level of military training of the personnel of the 3rd Air Fleet dropped sharply. When on March 1, 1943, the British Air Force made a massive raid on Berlin, Hitler ordered Sperrle to bomb London in retaliation, but Sperrle failed to cope with this task, the Fuhrer was furious. At a meeting on March 5, 1943, he denounced the failure of the 3rd Air Fleet to detect London, a target 30 kilometers in diameter, and was about to dismiss the commander. However, after some time, Hitler softened in relation to Sperrle and even sent him 50 thousand soldiers. Reichsmark to pay off debts. But the field marshal was not found at his headquarters - he was resting on the Atlantic coast in Biarritz. When, after the Allied landing in Normandy, Sperrle's 3rd Air Fleet failed to offer any serious resistance to the enemy, Hitler's patience came to an end, and on August 19, 1944, he dismissed Sperrle from his post of commander, appointing General Otto Dessloh in his place. Until the very end of the war, Sperrle was out of work. On May 1, 1945, he was taken prisoner by the Allies. On the appointing General Otto Dessloh in his place. Until the very end of the war, Sperrle was out of work. On May 1, 1945, he was taken prisoner by the Allies. On the appointing General Otto Dessloh in his place. Until the very end of the war, Sperrle was out of work. On May 1, 1945, he was taken prisoner by the Allies. On theAt the Nuremberg trials , he was convicted of war crimes, but on October 27, 1948, all charges against him were dropped. After undergoing denazification, Sperrle settled in Munich, where he died on April 2, 1953.

"Spiesser"

(Briezzeg - philistine), a contemptuous term used in the lexicon of National Socialism in relation to the middle class. The Minister of Education and Propaganda, Dr. Goebbels, often used this definition in his speeches to emphasize the "selfishness and stupidity" of the German intelligentsia.

"Sports Palace"

(Brogiraiazi), the Palace of Sports in Berlin, which accommodated 15 thousand people, in which Hitler, Goebbels and other top leaders of the Third Reich often spoke at mass rallies.

Schroeder, Kurt von

(Bsіtgoesіeg), (1889-1965), German banker who provided significant financial support to Hitler and the Nazi movement. Born November 24, 1889 in Hamburg. Graduated from Bonn

university. During the 1st World War he served in the Kaiser Hussars, then in the General Staff. After the war, he began working at a bank in Cologne.

From the early days of the Nazi movement, von Schroeder began to provide financial support to the Nazi movement, in the hope that this would save Germany from communism. It was he who organized the well-known meeting of Hitler and Franz von Papen on January 4, 1933 in his house in Cologne, as a result of which the Nazis' path to power was cleared. After Hitler became chancellor, he appointed Schröder president of the Rheinland Chamber of Industry. Von Schroeder also headed the so-called. Sectoral trade union of owners of private banks

In 1945, von Schroeder ended up in a British internment camp at Eselheide. Brought before a German court in Bielefeld on November 12, 1947, he was sentenced to three months' imprisonment for crimes against humanity.

Headquarters

(ЗіазѵѵасІіе), a special unit for the protection of Nazi party rallies and institutions in the 20s in Munich. It was formed from members of the SA and was initially used for the personal protection of Hitler and other Nazi leaders. On its basis, the “Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler” and SS guard detachments were later created .

Stalag

(Ziaiad), a commonly used abbreviated form (from Ciattiadet) of the designation of the camps for internee prisoners of war during the 2nd World War.

Standards

(Ziapsiagie), a division of the SA or SS, numbering from 1200 to 3000 people, equivalent to a combined arms regiment.

"Standerichte"

(ZiapgіdegisKіe), extraordinary tribunals, created on the initiative of Franz Portner by decree of October 2, 1943 to investigate crimes committed by Poles and Jews in the occupied territories. Consisted exclusively of members of the Gestapo. Paragraph 4 of the decree stated: "The Extraordinary tribunals of the Detective Police shall consist of an SS Fuhrer belonging to the Detective Police and SD Command Service and two members of the same service." Paragraph 6 read: "The sentences of the emergency tribunals of the detective police are carried out immediately."

Staremberg, Ernst Rüdiger

(Viagbeteggd), (1899-1956), Austrian statesman and politician. Born May 10, 1899 in Eferding, near Linz, in an old aristocratic family. After World War I, he joined the German Volunteer Corps. He took part in the failed "Beer Putsch" in 1923 in Munich. Later he was the main organizer of the Austrian fascists. As Austrian Minister of the Interior (1930), Vice-Chancellor (1934-36) and leader of the Heimwehr, Staremberg was responsible for the destruction of Parliament-

Prince Staremberg

rism in Austria. On the eve of the Anschluss , he suddenly changed his position and became an ardent supporter of the independence of Austria. After the country was occupied by German troops, Staremberg emigrated and was deprived of Austrian citizenship. In 1939 he volunteered for the French Air Force and participated in the fight against Nazism. From 1942 to 1955 he lived in South America. He died in Schruns, in Voralberg (Austria), March 15, 1956.

Stark, Jonathan

(Viagk), (1926-1944), member of the sect of Jehovah's Witnesses. Born July 8, 1926. At the age of 17 he was called to serve his labor service, but, true to his religion, refused to take the oath of allegiance to the Fuhrer. He was arrested by the Gestapo, sent to Sachsenhausen and hanged there at the end of October 1944. His last words to the executioner were: “Why are you delaying? Witness to Jehovah and Gideon!"

Stark, Johannes

(5iagk), (1874-1951), German physicist, Nobel Prize winner (1919; for the discovery of the Doppler effect in canal beams and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields; the so-called Stark effect), an active Nazi. In 1922, after attacks on Albert Einstein and his theory of relativity, he left the University of Würzburg under pressure from professors. Stark constantly criticized "self-confident Jewish science", considering only "German science" to be true. Stark's commitment to racial doctrine made him a desirable scientist for the Nazi regime. In 1933-39 he served as president of the Physico-Technical Research Institute in Berlin, and from 1934 he was president of the German Scientific Society. Stark died on June 21, 1957 in Traunstein.

Stathalter

Stathalter (ZiayNaIieg - governor), representative of the central authorities in the field.

State Police

(Зіааіпроіі/еі), regional political police service (became).

Stauffenberg, Klaus Schenck von

(ZiauNepGegd), (1907-1944), lieutenant colonel of the General Staff of the German army, count, a key figure in the July conspiracy of 1944. Born November 15, 1907 in Greifenstein Castle, Upper Franconia, in a family that has long served the royal houses of Württemberg and Bavaria. His father was a chamberlain of the Bavarian king, and his mother was the granddaughter of the Prussian general Count August Wilhelm Anton von Gneisenau (1760-1831). Brought up in the spirit of monarchical conservatism and Catholic piety, Stauffenberg, however, did not accept the bourgeois Weimar Republic and eventually became imbued with socialist ideas.

Believing at first in the virtues of the Nazi regime, which promised to ensure the revival of Germany, Stauffenberg enthusiastically accepted Hitler's rise to power in 1933. At the beginning of World War II, Stauffenberg was an officer in the Bavarian cavalry regiment, served in Poland, France and North. Africa. Having received a severe wound in Tunisia (lost his eye, right arm, crippled his leg), Stauffenberg miraculously survived thanks to the skill of the largest German surgeon Ferdinand Sauerbruchand returned to duty, later becoming chief of staff of the Reserve Army. Since that time, his attitude towards Hitler and Nazism has changed dramatically; he realized that Hitler would lead Germany to disaster. Wanting to save his homeland from shame and dishonor, Stauffenberg joined the participants in the conspiracy against Hitler in order to overthrow the Nazi regime and create a new social society in Germany.

Being a hereditary military aristocrat, Stauffenberg did not make a secret of his contempt for Hitler, whom he called "the main parasite", and for Nazism. Through

Claus Schenck von Stauffenberg

his relative Peter von Wartenburg , he began to work closely with the Kreisau group. When Count von Moltke was arrested in January 1944, Stauffenberg assumed the role of leader of the conspirators, among whom were the former mayor of Leipzig, Dr. Goerdeler, the former chief of the army general staff, General Beck , and many others.

Gisevius recalled: “Stauffenberg did not want Hitler to take the whole army with him to the grave. Being a military man to the tips of his nails, he believed that saving the army meant saving the homeland ... He was not alone in this conviction, turning out to be a typical representative of the military group that led the events of July 20. Since 1942, the number of this group has grown with each new defeat at the front and the determination to actively respond to events has strengthened in it.

On December 26, 1943, Stauffenberg was invited to Hitler's headquarters in Rastenburg for a report. He brought a time-delayed explosive device in his briefcase. However, Hitler, as usual, canceled the meeting at the last moment, and Stauffenberg had to take the bomb back to Berlin.

Enlisting, if not the support, then the friendly neutrality of some high-ranking military officers (the head of the Kripo - criminal police - Nebe, the prefect of the Berlin police Count Helldorf, his deputy Count Schulenburg, the military commandant of Berlin, General von Gaze, etc.), Stauffenberg developed the Valkyrie plan, according to which provided for the assassination of Hitler and the immediate organization of a military government in Berlin, which was supposed to neutralize the most dangerous organs of the Nazi regime with the help of the Wehrmacht: the SS, Gestapo and SD.

At the end of June 1944, Stauffenberg received the rank of colonel and was appointed chief of staff of the Reserve Army, which gave him access to meetings at the Fuhrer's headquarters. An important meeting at headquarters was scheduled for July 20 to sum up the results of the Soviet offensive in Galicia. Keitelinvited Stauffenberg to Rastenburg, where he was to make a report on the formation of units of the internal army, intended to organize the defense of each settlement in Germany and later called the Volkssturm. Stauffenberg arrived at headquarters with a briefcase, which again contained a delayed-action explosive device filled with exogen - English explosives from the secret Abwehr warehouses. Leaving the briefcase under the table, he left the room under a plausible pretext. A few minutes later, the explosion did not cause much harm to Hitler. Arriving in Berlin, Stauffenberg was absolutely sure that Hitler was dead and demanded from his commander the commander of the Reserve Army Frommput the Valkyrie plan into action immediately. However, when it became known that the Fuhrer was alive, Fromm renounced his subordinate, who was immediately arrested, sentenced to death by a national tribunal, and shot the same night in the courtyard of the War Ministry on Bendlerstrasse .

Stöcker, Adolf

(Bioeskeg), (1835-1909), court priest of Emperors Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II, ardent anti-Semite, forerunner of Hitler and Nazism. Born December 11, 1835 in Halbertstadt in the family of a junior army quartermaster. He studied at the theological faculties of Halle and Berlin, then was a pastor in several small congregations. With the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, Stöcker became an army chaplain. One of his sermons on the eve of the battle attracted the attention of Wilhelm I, who later, having become Kaiser, invited Stöcker to Berlin as a court priest. In 1878, Stöcker founded the Christian Social Workers' Party, whose goal was to fight social democracy and Judaism and spread the ideas of anti-Semitism among the working class.

In 1879-98 Stöcker was a member of the Prussian Landtag, in 1881-93 and in 1898-1908 he was a member of the German Reichstag. A talented orator, he passionately defended the ideas of Christianity, monarchism and nationalism, while at the same time attacking capitalism, social democracy and the Jews. Frequent scandalous speeches at mass rallies, slanderous articles in the press and quarrels with German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck led Stöcker to be excommunicated from the court. Two other crowned bearers, Frederick III and Wilhelm II, did not accept Stöcker. Despite this, he continued his propaganda and preaching activities, spreading the ideas of Christianity among the working environment. He died at Gries, near Bozen, on February 7, 1909.

Stöcker's views in many respects anticipated Hitler's ideas: firm nationalism, hatred of social democracy, populism and flirting with the masses, ardent anti-Semitism. However, the Nazi leader rejected monarchism and Christianity. Stöcker's contempt for Judaism served as a model for Hitler's extremism. Stöcker believed that it was impossible for Jews to understand the Christian worldviewor Great German spirit. He viewed Judaism as “an alien drop of blood in our national organism; it is a destructive force. We are obliged to cherish the characteristic properties of our national spirit, the German spirit: industriousness and piety are our national heritage. Stöcker believed that the Germans would be fools if they allowed the Jews to distort their national characteristics: “The Jews are a nation within a nation, a state within a state, a race within another race. They are the exact opposite of the German spirit.” When in 1888 they were going to erect a monument to Heinrich Heine, Stöcker opposed this: “Only a madman could decide on such a thing. Heine is a Jew, a scoundrel (1_itr)”.During his public speeches, Stöcker sometimes resorted to such unsubstantiated accusations against the Jews: “Ladies and gentlemen! Recently, a body was found nearby. He was witnessed. The city doctor was a Jew, the doctor was a Jew, the investigator was a Jew, and the lawyer was a Jew. And only the corpse was German.” The fight against the Jews, he said, is a genuine racial war, because "Judaism craves power, wants to appropriate our best property, our Christian religion, culture and our Germanic spirit."

The anti-Semitic ideas of Stöcker manifested themselves with renewed vigor in the early days of the Weimar Republic, becoming the starting point of the Nazi movement. Back in Vienna, young Hitler was a voracious reader of anti-Semitic literature. Many German populist clubs used Stöcker's views and ideas in their proclamations. Many of the attacks against the Jews presented in the pages of Mein Kampf repeat Stöcker's theories almost word for word. Hitler, in order to resolve the “Jewish question” in Europe once and for all, only translated theory into the rank of concrete action, developing and adopting the so-called. "final decision".

Stennes, rebellion

An attempted uprising within the Nazi Party. On February 20, 1931, Hitler, who decided to seek power by legal means, addressed the SA stormtroopers with a demand to refrain from street battles: “I understand your suffering and anger, but you should not take up arms.” This appeal caused a storm of indignation among the storm troopers of Berlin, who regarded it as a betrayal of the basic revolutionary principles of the party. SA Oberstführer Walter Stennes, already dissatisfied with Hitler's leadership, refused to carry out the Führer's order. This is a complete betrayal of party principles, he said. With the assistance of the then Gauleiter of Berlin, Dr. Goebbels, Hitler managed to suppress the uprising and expelled Stennes from the party for disobedience and rebellion.

But Stennes did not stop fighting for what he considered the revolutionary principles of National Socialist ideology. Together with Otto Strasser , he created the Black Front organization , headquartered in Prague, which led the struggle of the Nazi emigration against Hitler. In 1934, after the Nazi organ Angrif published an article accusing Stennes of political espionage within the party, Stennes opened a criminal case against Hitler for libel. At the trial, Hitler said: "I just think that anyone who opposes me and my movement is a paid agent." Later, Stennes went to China, where he became the head of Chiang Kai-shek's bodyguard.

Stines, Hugo

St and nes (Zіippes), (1870-1924), industrial magnate, founder (together with Fritz Thyssen and Emil Kirdorf) of the Stines syndicate, one of the first to provide financial support to the Nazi Party.

Born February 12, 1870 in Mulheim, the youngest son of Matthias Stines, the owner of a whole fleet of coal ships. Having received a diploma in mining engineering, Stines founded his own company in 1892 with a capital of 50 thousand marks. His company grew rapidly, incorporating coal mines, warehouses, barges and ships, it owned smelters and steel mills. Stines was the main figure in the Rheinisch-Westfalishe Electricitywerk A-G corporation, which supplied gas and electricity to many cities in Germany. including iron mines and cargo ships.Stiens had a huge impact on the economic life of Germany.He bought up democratic newspapers, turning them into the mouthpiece of their own conservative views. In 1920-24, Stines was a member of the Reichstag from the German People's Party. He was one of the first to provide financial support to Hitler and the Nazi movement. Stines died on April 10, 1924 in Berlin.

Stiff, Helmut

(ЗііеTT), (1901-1944), one of the participants in the July conspiracy of 1944. Born June 6, 1901 in Deutsch-Eylau (now Ilawa, Poland). In 1917 he joined the Imperial Army as a private and served in the 71st Field Artillery Regiment until the end of World War I. In 1934 he received the rank of captain, later served in the General Staff (1938-40). In 1942, with the rank of colonel, he became head of the organizational department of the main command of the ground forces. January 30, 1944 he was awarded the rank of major general.

Short, slightly hunchbacked (Himmler called him "poisonous dwarf") Stif became one of the leaders of the conspiracy against Hitler. On September 3, 1943, he proposed bombing the Fuhrer's headquarters in Rastenburg. A few days later, the British plastic bombs he had planted in the water tower at Rastenburg exploded prematurely. Ironically, Hitler ordered the investigation of this explosion to an officer of the Dbwehr, who was a participant in the conspiracy. July 20, 1944 Stief supplied Count von Stauffenbergвзрывным устройством и вылетел вместе с ним в Растенбург в ставку.

Immediately after the failed assassination attempt on Hitler, Stif was arrested in Rastenburg along with General Felgiebel. On August 7, 1944, after severe torture in the Gestapo, Stif, along with Field Marshal Witzleben, General Hoepner and other participants in the conspiracy, appeared before the People's Tribunal. The "court" presided over by Roland Freisler sentenced him to death. The next day, August 8, Stif and 7 other accused were brutally executed in the Plötzensee prison in accordance with the wishes of Hitler, who stated that he wanted "to be hanged as meat is hung in butchers."

Streicher, Julius

Streicher (Zіgeіsbeg), (1885-1946), Nazi politician, ardent anti-Semite. Born ^ February 1885 in the village of Fleinhausen, Upper Bavaria; the ninth child of a Roman Catholic elementary school teacher. The only thing known about his early years is that in 1909 he was a teacher in the suburbs of Nuremberg. Before the outbreak of World War I, Streicher served as a volunteer for a year, but was expelled from the army for extreme indiscipline, and in his service certificate there was a prohibition to ever serve in the German army. But World War I, which began soon, wrote off Streicher's previous sins, especially since he proved himself a brave soldier, for which he received the Iron Cross II and I degrees and the rank of lieutenant. After the war, he again began to teach in Nuremberg,

In 1919, Streicher created a political organization based solely on anti-Semitism. In 1921 he joined the NSDAP. In 1923, Streicher founded his own organ , Der Stürmer, which soon gained a reputation as the most ardent anti-Semitic publication in Germany. In 1925, Streicher was appointed Gauleiter of Franconia with headquarters in Nuremberg, while continuing to teach at the school. His students were required to greet their teacher every day with a cry of “Heil Hitler!”. In 1928 he was fired from school for promoting anti-Semitism. In 1929, Streicher was elected to the Bavarian Landtag from the Nazi Party.

In the party, Streicher was reputed to be a specialist in "inciting the crowd." Year after year, in his speeches and articles, he called for the fight against the Jews. The pages of his newspaper were full of notes and caricatures of Jews, stories of ritual murders, pornography and letters to the editor accusing Jews in all sins.Young people reported the names of girls who danced with Jews, dentists complained about Jewish colleagues who allegedly put plates that instantly collapsed, a patient in a psychiatric hospital claimed to be the victim of a Jewish conspiracy.Even the death of the Hindenburg airship in May 1937 the newspaper attributed it to a Jewish conspiracy.Hitler read every issue of the newspaper from cover to cover with great pleasure.

In January 1933, Streicher was elected to the Reichstag from the Nazi Party from Thuringia. At the same time, he was appointed head of the Central Commission for Combating Jewish Intrigues and Boycotts. In 1934 he was promoted to the rank of SS Gruppenführer (lieutenant general). Carrying a whip everywhere with him, pacing around his district like a disgruntled master, enjoying beating people in the presence of witnesses, he quickly gained a reputation as an uncontrollable eccentric tyrant. Once he visited the Nuremberg prison, where, in the company of friends, he severely beat a young prisoner. By appropriating confiscated Jewish property, he quickly amassed a fortune. Streicher provided his friends with the opportunity to buy Jewish-owned houses and businesses at a low price. He has been repeatedly accused

Li of rape and repeatedly brought criminal proceedings against him for libel.

His anti-Semitism took on pathological forms. As early as 1925, Streicher declared: “For thousands of years the Jews were a destructive people. Let today be the beginning of the extermination of the Jews.” April 1, 1933, he declared the national day of the boycott of the Jews. In 1935, Streicher enthusiastically welcomed the adoption of the Nuremberg laws on citizenship and race. In 1937 he said: “The Jew always feeds on the blood of other peoples, he always needs killings and sacrifices. Victory will come only when the whole world is free of Jews.” On November 10, 1938, he openly spoke out in support of a nationwide pogrom of the Jews (see Kristallnacht).After the outbreak of World War II, Streicher became the most ardent supporter of the extermination of Jews in the occupied eastern territories. On January 6, 1944, he wrote in his newspaper: "The rise of National Socialism provides us with the opportunity to free the continent from Jewish enslavers and exploiters forever." A cruel, ferocious sadist, he recognized only force as the solution to any problems. Streicher did not tire of showering contempt not only on enemies, but also on his party comrades. His presence in the highest echelons of the Nazi Party undoubtedly discredited the Nazi movement in the eyes of public opinion.

By 1939, Hitler, who had long sympathized with Streicher's ardent anti-Semitism, began to become annoyed by the behavior of his ally and gave him cool reprimands several times. Finally, Streicher was officially imposed a Rebejeurboi (prohibition on public speaking). In 1940 Goering appointed a commission to investigate Streicher's personal and public life. As a result, Streicher was removed from all party posts, which, however, did not stop him.

At the Nuremberg trials , Streicher was charged with "public incitement to the murder and extermination of Jews." The restless Streicher called this process "the triumph of world Jewry." He was not found guilty of involvement in the aggression, since he did not take part in the development of plans for the invasion, was not a military, political or diplomatic adviser to Hitler. However, he was found guilty on 4 counts and sentenced to death. October 16, 1946 he was led to the gallows in the Nuremberg prison. Rising to the scaffold, he sharply shouted: “Rigit / ezzi” (Jewish holiday that marked the defeat of Ham, the oppressor of the Jews, in biblical times). Streicher's last words were: "Heil Hitler!"

Strassenzellen

(EigazzepgeIIIen), “street cells”, grassroots units of the Nazi party in the early 1920s. The organizational structure of the Nazi Party was entirely borrowed from the Communists. "Strassenzellen" consisted of four or five people, at the head of which was the headman - "deception" (Obman).

Strasser, Gregor

(bіgazzeg), (1892-1934), Nazi party leader, from 1926 - the imperial leader of the NSDAP for propaganda, from 1932 - for organizational work and at the same time Hitler's deputy. Early in the Nazi movement, Hitler's rival for leadership of the party. Brother of Otto Strasser. Born May 31, 1892 in Geisenfeld (Lower Bavaria). Member of the 1st World War, captain, awarded the Iron Cross II and I degree. Settling after the war in Landshut, he became a pharmacist. During the "Beer putsch" 1923led a group of volunteers and led them to Munich to help Hitler, but he was too late. While Hitler was serving his sentence in Landsberg Prison, Strasser replaced him as leader of the Nazi Party, proving himself to be a capable organizer, a sober politician, a tireless, if not brilliant, orator, and a supporter of decisive action.

In 1924, Strasser sold the pharmacy, transferring the proceeds to the publication of the Nazi newspaper Berliner Ar-

Beiter Zeitung, edited by his brother. At the same time, he founded the information leaflet "NS-brief", inviting Goebbels to the post of editor. Having become a deputy of the Bavarian Landtag in 1924 and taking advantage of parliamentary immunity and the right to unhindered travel by rail, Strasser developed energetic activities to seize leadership in the party. to take the place of Hitler, Strasser, who considered himself an intellectual, self-confidently believed that he was able to offer the party much more than an emotional and unbalanced rootless Austrian.

From the very beginning, Strasser, along with his brother, represented the socialist wing of National Socialism. As a spokesman for urban revolutionaries, Strasser believed in "undiluted socialist principles." National Socialism, he said, must hasten the destruction of capitalism by any means possible, including cooperation with Bolshevik Russia. On the Bamberg par-; silent conference,held on February 14, 1926, Strasser represented the radical socialist wing. After initially gaining the support of his protégé Goebbels, he engaged in a furious verbal battle with Hitler over the degree of socialism in the Nazi movement; this struggle went on for eight years. However, Goebbels, sensing that strength was on Hitler's side, abandoned the Strasser brothers and spread to their opponent. From that time on, the enraged Strasser called Goebbels nothing more than a "gnome-schemer."

In 1932, Hitler appointed Strasser as head of the Nazi party's imperial organization (Néiszogdapі- zaііopzіеііeg), which did not prevent them from constantly quarreling. In the elections of July 31, 1932, the Nazis received 230 seats, becoming the strongest party in the Reichstag. Hitler was about to appoint Strasser as head of the Nazi faction, but at the last moment he chose Hermann Göring. December 7, 1932, seeking to split the Nazi deputies,

Chancellor Kurt von Schleicherinvited Strasser to take the post of vice-chancellor and state secretary of Prussia. Hitler, who secretly predicted Goering for these posts, was furious. Meeting with Strasser in the Kaiserhof, he accused him of trying to blackmail and trying to split the party. Rejecting these accusations, Strasser stated that, on the contrary, he wanted to save the party, and Hitler wanted to stab him in the back. After this meeting, the offended Strasser left his post in the party leadership on December 8, 1932, informing his friends that he intended to go with his family to Italy to rest. Hitler, who was abandoned not only by the Strasser brothers, but also by Gottfried Feder, was in a depressed state, fearing that he was losing his influence in the party. But quickly recovering, he used his brilliant oratorical skills to break the recalcitrant left wing of the party.

Meanwhile, the missing Strasser reappeared, but as a labor dispute consultant for a chemical company. Removing Strasser from the party leadership, Hitler replaced him with Rudolf Hess, appointing him head of the party's central political commission. Strasser was out of work. But Hitler did not forget his most dangerous rival. On June 30, 1934, during the Night of the Long Knives, Strasser was arrested and shot to death through the window of a prison cell.

In 1969, Strasser's book "My Struggle" was published in Frankfurt am Main - a posthumous blow to Hitler through the Looking Glass.

Strasser, Otto

(Zigazzeg), (1897-1974), one of the leaders of the left wing of the Nazi Party in the 20s, younger brother of Gregor Strasser. Born September 10, 1897 in Windsheim, Franconia. At first he joined the Social Democrats, in 1925-30 he was a member of the Nazi Party. Like his brother, Strasser took the words "socialist" and "workers" seriously in the name of the party. Hoping to turn the party onto the socialist path of development, Strasser

called for the nationalization of industry, banks and land. As editor of the Berliner Arbeiter Zeitung, founded by his brother in 1924, he called on the unions to strike and openly declared his sympathy for the Bolshevik regime in the Soviet Union.

Hitler was very annoyed by the activity of both brothers. He called Strasser a "salon Bolshevik" and labeled his supporters as "stupid doctrinaires and political boy scouts." According to Hitler, Strasser fell victim to "the fundamental sins of democracy and liberalism." Needing the financial support of the Rhineland industrialists, the Führer was extremely annoyed by the recalcitrant socialist wing in the party. He bought shares in Strasser's publishing house, closed the company and stopped publishing the newspaper, as a result of which the socialists were left without a mouthpiece for their ideology. Instead, the quickly popular newspaper Angrif, edited by Goebbels, began to appear.

On May 21, 1930, Hitler decided to open the abscess, demanding from Strasser complete submission to party discipline and personally to the Fuhrer. When he refused, Hitler ordered Goebbels to expel Strasser and his supporters from the party. Having declared publicly that it was he who was the true National Socialist, Strasser formed his own "Union of Revolutionary National Socialists", which became known as the "Black Front". Continuing to vilify Hitler as a "traitor to the revolution", and at the same time Himmler, to whom he coined the nickname "black Jesuit", Strasser, however, never headed any official faction. After leaving Germany, he moved to Prague and then to Canada. He wrote two books: Bartholomew's Night in Germany (Zurich, 1935) about the Night of the Long Knives,which took his brother's life, and Hitler and I (London, 1940). After the return of German citizenship to him in 1955, Strasser returned to his homeland. He died in Munich on 27 August 1974 at the age of 76.

Stresemann, Gustav

(Bugesetapp), (1878-1929), statesman and politician of Germany, leader of the German People's Party. Born May 10, 1878 in Berlin in the family of a hotel owner. In 1902 he received his doctorate with a dissertation on the development of the bottled beer trade in Berlin. Successfully engaged in commercial activities, then turned to politics. As a monarchist, he had no sympathy for the Weimar Republic, but he soberly recognized the realities of the republican system.

August 13, 1923 Stresemann headed the coalition government of Germany. Being a supporter of firm power, he suppressed attacks on the existing system by both left and right extremist forces (for example, he suppressed communist uprisings in Saxony and Thuringia, stopped Hitler's "Beer putsch" in 1923 in Munich). After the Social Democrats left the coalition government, Stresemann was forced to resign on November 23, 1923.

He remained Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Weimar Republic until the end of his days. In this post, he did a lot to restore Germany to its former international prestige. Stresemann established close contacts with most Western countries, consistently fulfilling all the conditions of the Versailles Treaty of 1919. In 1924 he accepted the Dawes plan for reparations, signed the Locarno Treaties of 1925, in 1926 he brought Germany into the League of Nations and supported the Young Plan. In 1926 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Hitler considered Stresemann, despite his certain nationalist and far-right sympathies, a traitor to German interests. Hitler regarded the fact that Stresemann was married to a Jewish woman, the daughter of a Berlin industrialist, as completely unworthy. Stresemann died suddenly on October 3, 1929.

Strifendinst

(Вігіе^енгііепзі), a street patrol service in the "Hitler Youth" organization, created in 1934. By agreement between Baldur von Chirac and Heinrich Himmler in 1938, participation in the "strifendinst" was a prerequisite for the subsequent entry of young people into the SS.

"Strochkopf"

(“ZioGіkorG — straw head, scarecrow), Hitler's favorite curse against a person with low intelligence. In December 1941, after the failure of the operation near Moscow, the furious Fuhrer called Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel a “stuffed animal” . He was so offended that he almost submitted his resignation and did not shoot himself. Only the persuasion of General Alfred Jodl stopped him.

Strup, Jürgen

(Zigoor), (1895-1951), SS Brigadeführer (major general). He led police operations during the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto in 1943. At the end of 1943 he was appointed head of the SS in Greece, where he served until 1944. On March 22, 1947, an American military tribunal sentenced him to death. Stroop was executed in Warsaw on September 8, 1951.

"Student"

(“Ziisiepi”), the code name for one of a series of four operations appointed by Hitler for July 31, 1943, in order to prevent the expected invasion of the Allied forces on the Italian mainland (see also “Aiche”, “Axe”, “Schwarz”). Operation "Student" provided for the occupation of Rome and the restoration of Mussolini's regime.

"Thing"

(Short for Sturzkampfbomber), dive bomber“/Onkers-87”.

Stumpfegger, Ludwig

(BіitrTeddeg), (1915-1945), one of Hitler's attending physicians, who remained with him in the Fuhrerbunker until the last days of the Third Reich.

Stumpfegger was a capable orthopedic surgeon who worked at the Hohenlüchen Clinic under Prof. Karl Gebhard. On October 31, 1944, at the direction of Himmler, Stumpfeger was sent to the Fuhrer's headquarters on the Eastern Front. The young, huge doctor felt sincere admiration for Hitler and showed boundless devotion to him. He never allowed himself to be critical of Dr. Theodor Morell, whose medicines were definitely undermining Hitler's health.

In the last days of the defense of Berlin, Stumpfeger was constantly in the lower floors of the bunker, assisting the incoming wounded. On April 28, he assisted General Robert von Greim, wounded in the leg, who managed to break through to Berlin by plane to become Goering's successor as chief of the Luftwaffe. Stumpfeger was among those who, after Hitler's suicide, tried to get out of the bunker under the fire of Soviet artillery. Artur Axmann, the leader of the German youth, later claimed to have seen the corpse of Stumpfegger on May 1, 1945, next to the body of Martin Bormann near the bridge on Invalidenstraße. Both bodies, he said, lay prone on their backs, illuminated by moonlight. Obviously, he added, Russian fire overtook them.

Storm

(Zіigt), an SA or SS unit, equivalent in size to a combined arms company.

Sturmbann

(Zigtband), an SA or SS unit equivalent in size to a combined arms battalion.

Stulpnagel, Carl Heinrich von

(ZіieІrpadeІ), (1886-1944), general of the German army, commander-in-chief of the occupying forces in France, the fate of the July 1944 conspiracy against Hitler. Born January 2, 1886 in Darmstadt. Brilliant

a career officer who received a comprehensive education, Stulpnagel from the first days of Hitler's reign considered the Nazi regime a disgrace to Germany.

From November 1938 to June 1940, Stülpnagel was quartermaster of the general staff of the ground forces. Chairman of the German-French commission for the cessation of hostilities. From the beginning of the invasion of the Soviet Union until October 1941 he commanded the 17th Army. From February 1942 to July 1944 - commander of the German troops in France, where he became a member of the conspiracy of senior army officials against Hitler.

The defeat of the German troops near Stalingrad played the role of a catalyst for the opposition-minded military, who realized that the collapse of the Third Reich was inevitable and that Hitler, in his fall, would drag the country and the army into the abyss.

At the signal for Operation Valkyrie, Stülpnagel's subordinates arrested over 1,200 high-ranking Gestapo and SS officers in Paris without encountering any resistance. On the way, in the region of Sedan, where many of his comrades fell during World War I, Stulpnagel tried to shoot himself, but survived, having lost his sight.

On August 29, 1944, Stülpnagel appeared together with other defendants before the People's Tribunal, was sentenced to death and hanged on August 30 in the courtyard of the Plötzensee prison in Berlin.

Sturmer

("OerBigtear" - "Stormtrooper"), an illustrated newspaper owned and published by Julius Streicher, a Nazi Party activist in Franconia. Semipornogra-

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Anti-Semitism was most perversely expressed in the weekly newspaper Stürmer, published by Julius Streicher, Gauleiter of Franconia. The persecution of Jews was often accompanied by pornographic overtones, as, for example, in the infamous "Stories of Ritual Murders". Published with a sequel and came out as a separate edition “Protocols of the Elders of Zion”

4 The physical, anti-Semitic newspaper was the worst kind of journalism. Its pages were filled with reports of sex scandals and laudatory, almost hysterical odes to Hitler and Nazism. Among the illustrations were crude caricatures of Jews, there were drawings that depicted Jews raping Christian girls. Streicher proudly declared that his newspaper was the only one that the Fuhrer read from cover to cover.

Schulenburg, Count Werner von der

(BsiiІniggd), (1875-1944), German diplomat, in 1934-1941 - ambassador to the Soviet Union. Participated in the signing ceremony of the Non-Aggression Pact between Germany and the USSR. In 1941, he tried to warn the Soviet leadership about the impending German attack on the Soviet Union. He was involved in the July conspiracy of 1944 and was executed on November 10, 1944 by the verdict of the People's Tribunal.

I

"Shulung"

Military directive on preparations for an attack on Czechoslovakia, signed by General Blomberg on May 2 , 1935.

and

"Shupo"

(ZsNiroz), units of the city patrol police.

Schuschnigg, Kurt von

(Bsbizsbpidd), (1897-1977), Federal Chancellor of Austria, successor to Dollfuss. Born December 14, 1897 in Riva, South Tyrol. He received his legal education at the Universities of Freiburg and Innsbruck. Member of the Christian Socialist Party, in 1927 he became a member of the National Assembly. From 1932 to 1934 he was Minister of Justice of Austria in the government of Dollfuss, after whose assassination in 1934 he became Federal Chancellor. On July 11, 1936, Schuschnigg concluded a treaty of friendship with Germany. In February 1938, he was forced to appear in Berchtesgaden on Hitler's call, where, under the threat of an immediate military invasion of Austria, he accepted three conditions, thus signing his own sentence; 1. Dr. Seyss-Inquart,member of the Nazi Party since 1931, appointed Minister of the Interior and chief of the detective police, which gave the Nazis absolute control over the Austrian police; 2. a new general political amnesty freed Nazis convicted of various crimes; 3. The Austrian Nazi Party joined the Patriotic Front.

On March 9, 1938, hoping to discourage the Nazis and show the world community that the Austrians wanted to remain independent, Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite on Sunday, March 13, 1938. On March 11, 1938, Schuschnigg was forced to resign, and at dawn on March 12, German troops entered Austria (see Anschluss). Former Chancellor Schuschnigg was detained for several weeks at the Gestapo residence at Morzinplatz, where he was treated very roughly, and then sent to a concentration camp, where he stayed until May 1945. In 1956, having received American citizenship, Schuschnigg became a professor at St. Louis University.

Ebert, Friedrich

(Elegi), (1871-1925), German politician, first president of the Weimar Republic. Born February 4, 1871 in Heidelberg. Since 1893, the editor of the social democratic newspaper "Bremer Bürgerzeitung" ("Bremer Vygdeggeiiiipd"). In 1905 he became secretary of the Central Committee of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, and in 1913 its chairman, replacing Ferdinand August Bebel in this post. February 11, 1919 Ebert was elected provisional president of the Weimar Republic. According to the 48th amendment of the Weimar constitution, the general presidential elections in the country were canceled, and Ebert took over as president.

Friedrich Ebert

powers expired on June 30, 1925. Pursuing a cautious but firm policy, he managed to suppress both communist uprisings in the country and the Kapp putsch (1920), as well as the “Beer putsch” of 1923. Ebert died in Berlin on February 28, 1925.

Euthanasia program

The Nazi program for the extermination of the terminally ill, as well as representatives of "inferior" peoples - Jews, Gypsies, Poles and Russians. The euthanasia program was first announced on July 14, 1933 in the Decree for the Protection of the Health of the Nation. The program consisted of three points: the killing of the terminally ill, the direct destruction by means of "special treatment" (SopsierbereIanblind) and mass sterilization experiments.

In 1935, Hitler stated that in the event of war, he intended to carry out a euthanasia program, as he believed that “such a program would have a much more calm and rapid effect in the overall outcome of the war, and that the open resistance of the Church would not play the part that could be would be expected of her."

On September 1, 1939, Hitler issued a secret decree on the killing of the “terminally ill.” It not only applied to numerous

A group of mountain shooters used their offensive in the Caucasus to establish sports achievements: on August 21, 1942, they climbed the highest peak of the Caucasus, Elbrus (5629 meters) - and planted the imperial war flag there. But, despite the fact that the whole world knew about the raising of the flag, Hitler was furious. He shouted that the honor of his army was in defeating the Russians, and not in climbing to the heights. Hitler, of course, was cunning: after all, Mount Elbrus is considered sacred to the Aryans, whose superiority the Fuhrer spoke so much about.

categories of the disabled, chronically ill, mentally handicapped, but could also be arbitrarily applied to political opponents of the Nazi regime. By August 1941, the number of victims of the "euthanasia program" reached 70 thousand people. On July 28, 1941, Bishop von Galen, Count of Münster, filed a case of gang murder of mentally ill people before the prosecutor's office of the Münster Land Court and before the police president of Münster. As a result of this protest, the program was suspended, but not cancelled. On September 26, Bishop von Galen was forced to renew his protest, reading it from the church pulpits of the Oldenburg district.

Edelweiss

(Ebeіѵѵеізз), the code name of the military directive issued by Hitler on July 23, 1942 with the aim of the offensive of Army Group “A” in the Caucasus to capture the Baku oil fields.

Eike, Theodor

(Eiske), (1892-1943), creator and head of the concentration camp system in pre-war Germany, as well as the creator and commander of the SS division “Dead Head”. Born October 17, 1892 in Hudingen, Alsace. In 1909, when he was 17 years old, Eicke joined the army.During the 1st World War, he took part in the battles near Ypres and in Flanders, he finished the war with the Iron Cross of I and II degrees.After demobilization, he briefly studied at a technical school in Ilmenau Worked as a paid police informant In January 1923, Eicke became a security officer for the IG Farbenindustry Corporation.in Ludwigshafen. In 1928 he joined the NSDAP and the SA. In November 1930, Himmler awarded him the rank of Untersturmführer and appointed him an SS platoon commander. His service zeal did not go unnoticed, and Eike began to quickly move up the career ladder. November 15, 1931 he was appointed commander of the 10th SS regiment. Pursued by the police for illegal possession of explosives, Eike was forced to flee to Italy. Returning to Germany after Hitler came to power, on March 21, 1933, Eicke, with a group of armed SS men, raided the headquarters of his old enemy Gauleiter Rhineland-Palatinate Josef Burkel and kept him locked up in a closet for several hours. For this, Eicke was declared mentally ill and placed with Himmler's approval in a psychiatric hospital.

Theodor Eicke

A year later, after repeated written appeals to Himmler, Eicke was released from the clinic and sent to a new place of work - the commandant of Dachau,the first German concentration camp for political prisoners. Eicke replaced half of the undisciplined and decomposed camp staff, introduced the strictest discipline and order, which later became a model for the entire system of concentration camps in Nazi Germany. Senseless cruelty gave way to systematic, well-organized cruelty, based on the principle of unconditional and absolute obedience to the orders of senior SS officers. Eike put prisoners in a punishment cell and subjected them to various types of corporal punishment. He sought to harden the officers and rank and file of the guard to such an extent that everyone who still retained the slightest signs of decency turned into an insensitive beast.

Eike showed particular cruelty towards Jewish prisoners. He often spoke to his subordinates with anti-Semitic lectures and ordered that the newspaper "Oer Ziiiigteg" - an SS organ with explicit racist content - be hung in a conspicuous place in the barracks. Eicke's “successes” at Dachau made such a strong impression on Himmler that on January 30, 1934, he awarded him the rank of SS Brigadeführer (Major General). Eicke played a major role in the preparations for the Night of the Long Knives, he helped draw up lists of SA stormtroopers to be destroyed, and personally shot Ernst Röhm.For participation in this "bloody purge" Eike July 5, 1934 was appointed chief inspector of concentration camps and commander of the SS security units. Six days later he was awarded the rank of Lieutenant General of the Wehrmacht. Moving his headquarters from Berlin to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, Eicke enthusiastically set to work to create a unified centralized concentration camp system. In 1937 he closed several small camps, concentrating all his activities in four large ones: Dachau, Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen and Lichtenburg. After the Anschluss of Austria, Eicke opened a fifth camp there, Mauthausen.

After that, Eicke began to form new divisions of the SS troops: by 1939, the formation of several regiments of the future SS motorized division “Totenkopf” was basically completed. Soldiers from the “Dead Head” units guarded the prisoners for one week of the month, and spent three weeks in drill and physical training, weapon study, and political education. Eike mercilessly drilled his subordinates. Those of them who did not stand the test or did not show proper obedience were expelled from the ranks of the SS or transferred to the general parts of the SS - “Allgemeine SS”.

From the first days of the 2nd World War, several regiments subordinate to Eicke (about 7 thousand people) followed the Wehrmacht to Poland. His soldiers did not participate in hostilities (with the exception of a few hundred

check), and instead, in cooperation with the security service led by Reinhard Heydrich , the SD formed the infamous Einsatzgruppen, engaged in punitive actions against the civilian population.

By May 10, 1940, by the time the invasion of Holland, Belgium and France began, Eicke had completely completed the formation of the “Dead Head” division, whose personnel exceeded 15 thousand people. Although the level of training of officers, as a rule, who did not have combat experience, was low, and the division commander himself - Eike - was just a punishment for his subordinates, all this was more than compensated for by the fanatical courage and excellent physical fitness of the soldiers. Despite huge losses, the “Dead Head” won one victory after another.

Two days after the beginning of the invasion of the USSR, the “Dead Head” division was transferred to the Eastern Front and became part of the Army Group “North” of Field Marshal Wilhelm von Leeb, where it managed to break the fierce resistance of the Soviet troops in Lithuania. On July 6, 1941, the car in which Eicke was returning to the command post was blown up by a mine. Eicke received a serious leg injury, however, without completing the treatment, on September 21 he returned to his duties as division commander. For the courage shown during the battles south of Lake Ilmen and in the Demyansk region, Eike was awarded the Knight's Cross .and was promoted to the rank of SS-Obergruppenführer. The German command “plugged” the most dangerous sectors of the front with the “Dead Head” division, as a result of which the losses of personnel were enormous. By April 6, 1942, despite constant replenishment, less than 10 thousand people remained in the ranks, of which a third state of extreme physical and nervous exhaustion.In the winter of 1942-43, the completely reorganized Eicke division was transferred to France, but after Stalingrad again ended up on the Eastern Front, where it participated in the battles for Kharkov.February 26, 1943 light reconnaissance aircraft, in which Eicke flew to investigate Eike's remains were buried at the cemetery in Zhytomyr, but during the retreat of the German troops, they were not taken away for reburial.

Eichmann, Adolf [Karl]

(Eisitapp), (1906-1962), one of the main Nazi leaders, directly responsible for the death of millions of Jews. Born March 19, 1906 in Solingen. He spent his early years in Linz, Austria, the same place where Hitler lived in his youth. For the dark color of his hair and eyes, Eichmann received from his peers the nickname "beg kіeipe Zobe" ("little Jew"). He graduated from the folk school in Thuringia, then briefly studied electrical engineering at the university, but was forced to drop out due to inflation. He was a traveling salesman for an oil company in Vienna. There he joined the Nazi movement, in which he was reflected

Adolf Eichmann

own hatred of Jews, participated in mass rallies and meetings. In 1927, Eichmann joined the youth section of the Austro-German veterans' organization, and in 1932 became a member of the Austrian Nazi Party, which attracted the attention of the Austrian police and forced him to leave the country and move to Berlin. In 1934, Eichmann joined the SD and was assigned to serve in the filing cabinet. He turned out to be a gifted person, scrupulous, hardworking, a born organizer and an exemplary specialist. Having made a brilliant career, Eichmann later moved to the Gestapo,where Himmler, considering him an expert in Hebrew, appointed him head of the Department of Jewish Affairs. In 1937, Eichmann visited Palestine in order to establish contacts with Arab leaders, but was soon expelled from the country by the British authorities. Returning to Germany, Eichmann began to quickly move up the ranks and rose to the rank of SS Obersturmbannführer. After working in the Imperial Central Office for Jewish Emigration, he was appointed head of subsection IV V4G of the Imperial Security Office (RSHA). On January 20, 1942, Eichmann took part in the Wannsee Conference, at which the question of the deportation of Jews to the East and to the “death camps” was finally decided (see “Final Decision”).In August 1944, Eichmann reported to Himmler that despite the lack of accurate statistics, about 4 million Jews were exterminated in pursuance of this decision, and another 2 million Jews were exterminated by other services.

At the end of World War II, Eichmann was arrested by American intelligence services and sent to an internment camp, from where he managed to escape in 1946. In 1952, Eichmann managed to move to South America, where for three years he moved from country to country, until he settled in 1955 in Buenos Aires. Having gone to work at a branch of the Mercedes-Benz automobile company, he ordered his wife and two children from Germany to live with him. Although he managed to get a fake passport in the name of Clemento Ricardo, this did not save him: on May 13, 1960, right on the street, he was captured by a group Israeli agents and secretly taken to Israel. In Jerusalem, Eichmann appeared before the court, which lasted more than six months. On December 15, 1961, the death sentence was read to him. Eichmann was hanged on June 1, 1962 in Ramleh prison. His body was burned, and his ashes were scattered over the sea far from the coast.

Eckart, Dietrich

(Eskagі), (1868-1923), German nationalist poet. Born March 23, 1868 in Neumarkt. He was a journalist, actively opposed the revolution of 1918, which he considered inspired by the Jews. He is the author of the poem "yeig)o" (1919), a line from which "Oeyіzsіpіapsi Егѵѵасе!" (“Germany, wake up!”) later became the battle cry of the Nazi movement. Having become close to nationalist-minded circles, Eckart joined the party of Anton Drexler , met Hitler and Erich Ludendorff. He took part in the Kapp putsch. In December 1920, with the funds raised by Eckart, the newspaper Völkischer Beobachter was purchased, co-editor of which (with Alfred Rosenberg)he stayed for two years. Eckart actively helped Hitler in expanding the social base of the Nazi movement, accompanying him during rallies and parades, writing laudatory panegyrics for his friend. Hitler highly valued Eckart's devotion, later calling him a "teacher" and "Polar Star", whose contribution to the Nazi movement he considered invaluable. Eckart's poem "Sturm" became one of the most popular Nazi songs. Shortly before his death, Eckart published in Munich riddled with anti-Semitismthe book "Bolshevism from Moses to Hitler", where he had a dialogue with an imaginary anonymous interlocutor, in whom Hitler was easily recognized. Eckart attributed to his interlocutor the “discovery”, which consisted in the fact that the secret force that served as “the cause of the violation of the world historical order is the Jews.” According to Eckart, Geet

Lehr took Arthur de Gobineau 's fatal pessimism and turned it into aggressive optimism. Hitler, according to Eckart, was the first person to realize that the exodus of the Jews from Egypt took place "in order to make a bloody revolutionary assault on the established order, and Moses was none other than the leader of Bolshevism." Hitler constantly used the anti-Semitic ideas presented in the book in his speeches.

It is known that Eckart was addicted to morphine in his younger years and spent some time in a psychiatric hospital. In addition, he was an alcoholic. By the time of the "Beer Putsch" of 1923 he was already seriously ill. Eckart died in Berchtesgaden on December 23, 1923 from a heart attack.

Alsace, Fritz

(Eisaz), (1890-1945), German lawyer, burgomaster of Berlin, close friend of one of the leaders of the Resistance movement Karl Friedrich Goerdeler. Born July 11, 1890 in Bad Cannstadt, Württemberg. He held various public posts, was a legal adviser to the Stuttgart municipality, chairman of the German Association of Municipal Councils. In 1931 he was elected Mayor of Berlin. His career ended with the rise of the Nazis because Alsace was Jewish. As Goerdeler's closest associate, he was arrested by the Gestapo, tortured and executed at Sachsenhausen on January 4, 1945 .

Elser, Johann Georg

(Eiseg), (1903-1945), a carpenter who was accused of attempting to assassinate Hitler in November 1939. He was accused of planting an explosive device in one of the columns of the Bürgerbraukeller beer hall in Munich, in which he was supposed to Hitler to speak at a ceremony dedicated to the next anniversary of the "Beer Putsch" of 1923. The bomb exploded after Hitler left the hall. As a result of the explosion, 7 people were killed and 63 were injured. Elser was arrested on November 10, 1939 while trying to cross the Swiss border. With him found a postcard depicting the interior of the Bürgerbraukeller, where an ink cross was marked with a column in which the bomb was located.Elser's interrogations were personally led by Heydrich, Müller and Schellenberg.The Nazi secret services, which, apparently, had prepared this provocation, did not dare to go to a wide trial, and Elser was sent first to Sachsenhausen, and then transferred to Dachau. He was shot on the personal orders of Himmler in April 1945.

See also "Burgerbraukeller".

Eltz-Ryuenach, Paul von

(EPG-Vybepasb), (1875-1943), Reich Minister of Posts and Communications in Hitler's first cabinet. Born February 7, 1875 in Van, Mulheim am Rhein, in the family of a large landowner. Participated in the 1st World War, first at the front, and later in the General Staff as a specialist in rail transportation. He was awarded the Iron Cross II and I degree. After the war he worked in the Ministry of Railways of Germany; in 1921 he headed this ministry. In 1932, Eltz-Ryuenach was appointed Minister of Posts and Communications. He retained the same post after Hitler came to power. He died in Linz in 1943.

Epp, Ritter von

(Err), (1868-1947), General of the Reichswehr, politician of Bavaria, Reichsleiter, head of the NSDAP Colonial Policy Office Born October 16, 1868 in Munich. Member of the 1st World War. After the war, he headed the units of the “Volunteer Corps”, which participated in the suppression of the armed uprisings of workers in Munich, becoming in fact the commander of the troops of Bavaria. One of the first among the military, von Epp supported Hitler and the Nazi movement. In 1921, he provided financial assistance to Hitler in the publication of the Nazi newspaper “Völkischer Beobachter.” Since 1926 he headed the reorganized

Ritter von Epp

units of the SA in Bavaria, making efforts to create on their basis a new regular army of Germany after Hitler came to power. In 1928, von Epp became a member of the Reichstag, representing the NSDAP from Upper Bavaria.

On March 9, 1933, by order of Hitler, von Epp dissolved the Bavarian government and was appointed to the post of Stadthalter of Bavaria, which he held until the last days of the Third Reich. In addition, he was a Reichsleiter of the NSDAP. Von Epp died in an American internment camp in 1947.

Erdman, Lothar

(Egbtap), (1888-1939), German journalist, social democrat. Born October 12, 1888 in Halle in the family of a professor of philosophy. He studied history and philosophy in Bonn and Freiburg, then in London. Participated in the 1st World War, commanded a company on the Western Front. After the war, he worked as a journalist and was a trade unionist. Erdman continued to engage in journalism after the Nazis came to power. In 1939 he was sent to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp "for preventive reasons". Trying to protest against the cruel treatment of prisoners, Erdman was subjected to terrible beatings and died from his injuries on September 18, 1939.

Ernst, Carl

(Egpzі), (1904-1934), one of the top leaders of the SA assault detachments. Born in Wilmersdorf, Berlin. He worked as a bellhop in a hotel, a bouncer in a cafe, a baker, a waiter. In 1923 he joined the Nazi Party. Ernst attracted the attention of the SA leader, Captain Ernst Röhm, who introduced him to his entourage. On April 4, 1931, Röhm appointed Ernst head of the SA units in Berlin. In this post, Ernst "became famous" for the fact that during the constant orgies he squandered the funds of public donations. In 1932 he was elected to the Reichstag from the Nazi Party. In 1933, Ernst led a team that was tasked with setting fire to the Reichstag. In early 1934 he was promoted to the rank of SS Gruppenführer (lieutenant general) and became one of the senior leadership of the SA.

On June 30, 1934, Ernst went to Bremen with his fiancee to sail to Madeira, where he planned to spend his honeymoon. However, on the way he was captured by the SS, beaten unconscious and sent by plane to Berlin. Together with other leaders of the SA, he was executed by order of Hitler.

See also Night of the Long Knives.

Erhardt, German

(EKgbagsK), (1881-1971), organizer and leader, (along with Wolfgang Kapp), of the Kapp putsch in 1920 and the march on Berlin. Navy officer, served in the 2nd Naval Brigade. After the 1st World War, he participated in the overthrow of the Bavarian 

Soviet republic. The organizer of the veteran unit "Vikings", which served as the auxiliary police of Bavaria, the majority of whose members later joined the SA assault detachments. Fearing for his life during the events of the Night of the Long Knives, he fled to Austria.

Esser, German

(Ezweg), (1900-1981), one of Hitler's closest associates in the early years of the Nazi movement. He was among the founders of the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany. Along with Julius Streicher , Esser was the most notorious figure in the Nazi Party. He was such an ardent preacher of anti-Semitism that Hitler, not wanting to compromise his own movement, tried not to nominate Esser to leadership positions.

Esser was born on July 29, 1900 in Rormus, Bavaria, the son of a civil servant. As a teenager, he took part in the 1st World War. He returned from the war a convinced socialist, created a revolutionary student union. He worked as a reporter for an ultra-left provincial newspaper. Together with Anton Drexler , Esser created the German Workers' Party, the basic principles of which were proclaimed extreme nationalism and anti-Semitism. At this time, he met Hitler, who, among other things, was attracted to Esser's brilliant oratory.

Rude and ill-mannered, a man of low moral character, self-confident and arrogant, constantly arranging one hooligan trick after another, Esser was a model of the National Socialist and was arrested more than once for his scandalous behavior. In his personal life, he also did not differ in cleanliness. When one of his acquaintances became pregnant by him, Esser agreed to marry her only after the intervention of Hitler, who demanded that Esser do his duty “for the honor of the party and its leadership.” Hitler later became the godfather of his two sons.

In the political confusion of the first post-war years in Munich, Esser turned out to be a clever tactician and became one of Hitler’s most loyal associates (it was he who first publicly called Hitler “Fuhrer”), attracting, thanks to his eloquence, more and more supporters to his side. However, Esser’s own interests put above all else. Once, having not received his party salary on time, Esser became furious and declared that he would go over to the communists if they promised him good earnings, and would reveal to them all the party secrets of the Nazis. This threat from Esser did not surprise Hitler. “I have always known that Esser is a fraud,” said Hitler. “But I have to use it for as long as necessary. I have to keep him to myself, because that's the only way I can keep an eye on him... I use him as a speaker, affecting a certain type of audience. But I will never trust him with political power.”

Hitler's attitude towards Esser has always remained controversial. On the one hand, he preferred the company of Esser and old party comrades such as Dietrich Eckart, Drexler, Streicher, feeling closer to them than to the new "intellectuals" of the movement - Gottfried Feder, Rudolf Hess or Alfred Rosenberg. On the other hand, Hitler was careful to ensure that Esser did not in any case acquire real weight in the party and would not rise above him. In 1920, Hitler appointed Esser as editor of the official party organ, the Völkischer Beobachter newspaper. From 1923 to 1925 Esser was the propaganda leader of the NSDAP until he was replaced by Dr. Goebbels.

Referring to illness, Esser refused to take part in the "Beer Putsch" of 1923, which earned him the label of "snobbish coward" from Hitler. After the Nazi Party was banned, Esser fled to Austria. Returning in January 1924, he was sentenced to 3 months in prison "for disturbing the peace." After his release, he again managed to ingratiate himself with Hitler by visiting him in the Landsberg prison.

By this time, the party ranks were overwhelmed by a wave of cruel civil strife between the Bavarian "conservatives" led by Esser and Streicher and the North German "socialists" - the Strasser brothers and Rosenberg. Gregor Strasser accused Esser: “His personal life is immoral. His actions are selfish and unpopular. His behavior in November 1923 was cowardly and absolutely unworthy of a true National Socialist.” Esser did not remain in debt. Hitler, who sensed a serious danger to the party in this split, ordered his subordinates to immediately "stop the bickering."

In 1926 Esser quarreled with Streicher. Hitler, who took the side of Streicher, forbade Esser to use the familiar “you” in his address. In response, Esser again threatened to expose party secrets. Hitler compromised by appointing Esser as editor of the new Illustrator Beobachter. Esser held this post for six years.

In 1928, when Gustav Stresemann,who was then Foreign Minister, arrived in Munich to make a speech on behalf of the government, Esser, at the head of 500 storm troopers, burst into the balcony from which he was speaking, and shouting "death to the Jews!" In the same year, Esser became a member of the Bavarian Landtag, and joined the Munich city council in 1929. Shortly after Hitler came to power, Esser occupied several important administrative posts at once: the Minister of Economics of Bavaria, the head of the Bavarian Reich Chancellery, the chairman of the Bavarian As Bavarian minister of economics, Esser tried to put pressure on local industrialists to contribute large sums of money to the state treasury, as a result of which he had a serious conflict with the Bavarian minister of the interior, Adolf Wagner.Under the pretext of "administrative reforms" in March 1935, Hitler was forced to remove Esser from his post, but there were rumors that this was due to the fact that Esser was involved in the rape of the daughter of a major Munich businessman. But even after that, Esser continued to play a significant role in the affairs of the party and the state. On December 12, 1939, Esser was appointed vice-chairman of the Reichstag and at the same time secretary of state of the tourism department of the Ministry of Education and Propaganda. At this time, Esser published the book "Worldwide Jewish Plague", written in a vicious anti-Semitic spirit.

After the outbreak of World War II, Esser's influence declined sharply. And although he still often spoke at various party celebrations, he failed to win Hitler's favor again, and he gradually faded into the background. After the defeat of the Third Reich, this circumstance played an important role in the fate of Esser: at the time when other leaders of the Nazi party were brought before the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, Esser, arrested by the Americans, escaped punishment and was released in 1947. However, on August 8, 1949, the Munich city court under the denazification programfound Esser guilty as one of the main ideologues of Nazism and sentenced him to five years probation, confiscation of property and deprivation of civil rights for life. In 1949, Esser published a number of articles in the German press under the general heading "Adolf Hitler's Great Favorite".

Ehera, publishing house

Munich publishing house, originally owned by Franz Eher II, which in 1922 was headed by Max Amann. In this publishing house, Hitler's book "Mein Kampf" was first published. It later became the official publishing house of the Nazi Party.

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Jugendherbergen

(ZidepsІІіегГегДэн), youth holiday camps, created in 1933 for members of the Hitler Youth organization traveling around Germany. In these camps, for a small fee, young Germans could get overnight accommodation, food and basic amenities. The previously existing youth holiday camps with the Nazis coming to power completely By 1934, about 5 million teenagers used the services of tented or stationary camps during their summer holidays.

Jugendschutzkammer

(Zidepsijsciigkatteg), an administrative body that dealt with the rights of youth. His competence included, for example, such issues as physical abuse of schoolchildren by teachers.

Judas Judas

(Zisiaz-Zisie), based on a play on words (“Judas the traitor” - “Jew”) expression from the lexicon of Nazi propaganda.

Judenrat

(Zysiepgai), an administrative body established in 1941 by the Nazi authorities, allegedly in charge of Jewish self-government. The central body was the Imperial Representative Council of the German Jews (Beijsbzwegiggeijpd beg Oeischssen Zisien). Such "Jewish councils" were created not only in Germany, but also in many occupied European countries, in particular, in the Warsaw ghetto.

Jung, plan

The second reparation plan for Germany, replacing the Dawes plan. Developed by a committee of financial experts from a number of countries, headed by the American banker O. Jung. Adopted at the Hague Conference on Reparations 1929-30. The emergence of the "Young Plan" was largely dictated by the interests of private, primarily American, creditors to Germany, whose solvency was undermined by huge reparations. The new plan provided for a slight reduction in the amount of annual payments (on average, to 2 billion marks), the abolition of the reparation tax on industry and a reduction in the taxation of transport, and the elimination of foreign control bodies. One of the most important consequences of the adoption of the "Young Plan" was the early withdrawal of the occupying troops from the Rhineland. In practice, the Young Plan was carried out only until July 1931 (officially canceled in 1932).

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Owen Jung, author of the plan to stabilize the German currency. The depression that followed the implementation of this plan led to an increase in unemployment, the closure of banks, stock exchanges, and so on.

Jungdoicher, Order

(Zipdbeyizsbeg Ogsiep), a conservative youth organization in Germany in the early 1930s, uniting liberal forces that sought to prevent the Nazis from coming to power. The leader of the organization is Artur Marun.

Junge, Gertrude

(Zipde), Hitler's personal secretary. Born March 16, 1920 in Munich. I witnessed the last days of Hitler in the Berlin bunker. It was to her on the morning of April 29, 1945 that the Fuhrer dictated his political testament and last will.

Junger, Ernest

(Zypdeg), German writer and thinker. Born March 29, 1895 in Heidelberg. Volunteer participated in the 1st World War, officer, was awarded the medal "For Valor". He gained world fame as the author of the diary “In Steel Thunderstorms” (1920). Depicting the horrors of war, Jünger at the same time asserts it as an opportunity for “the deepest life experience”, as “internal experience”. In the pessimistic social utopia “Worker. Dominance and Appearance” (1932) depicts a society of “technical imperialism”: according to Jünger, the prototype of the coming man is the “worker-soldier”, characterized by the rejection of “bourgeois-romantic individuality” and complete mastery over oneself, including overcoming any pain up to absolute insensitivity In 1933 Jünger refused to join the Nazi-reorganized Prussian Academy of Arts.

Jungfolk

(Zipdvoik), the younger age group of the Hitler Youth organization, which consisted of boys from 10 to 14 years old.

Jungstalhelm

(ZipdziaYbeit), youth group of the Steel Helmet organization. July 25, 1933 "Jungstalhelm" became part of the "Hitler Youth".

Junkers-87

(Zipkeg8 ~ 87; Zi -87), single-engine dive bomber, adopted by the German Air Force at the beginning of World War II. Put into production in 1936. It had a 1000 hp water-cooled engine. s., wingspan 16 meters, speed up to 500 km / h. Armament - three 7.9 mm machine guns. He first took part in hostilities during the Spanish Civil War as part of the Condor Legion. During the “Battle of England”, despite the high flying skills of German pilots, the Junkers-87 turned out to be easy prey for the Royal Air Force. After the German attack on the Soviet Union, it was gradually replaced by the more advanced Junkers-88 medium twin-engine bomber.

Junkerschule

(Zipkegvsbie), special educational institutions for the training of the officer corps of the SS.

Justice in the Third Reich

The legal system of the Third Reich fully corresponded to the Fuhrer's personal ideas about justice. Hitler had a contemptuous attitude towards the traditional legal system of bourgeois parliamentarism, which he tirelessly repeated in the early years of the Nazi movement. After becoming Chancellor of Germany, he sought to prevent the slightest control or limitation of his power by law. His idea of ​​justice was based on the postulate “is it good for the nation”. The human conscience, he said, is a Jewish invention designed to enslave other races. He rejected concepts such as Kant's categorical imperative, but being a man of insight, Hitler showed a certain caution and preferred to appear in public statements as a firm and consistent defender of law and order, for which he gained a reputation among the people as a “lawyer”. But in conversations in a narrow circle of his like-minded people, he did not hesitate to declare that the law for him is primarily a means of control over the Germans.

kim people. “I will not hesitate,” he said, “to commit cold-blooded treachery many times a day if it serves my purpose.”

Dive bombers Zi-87 (“Thing”)

Once in power, Hitler set about overhauling the German legal system. He had little interest in sections of civil law, such as wills, torts, or commercial contracts; he allowed them to be left virtually untouched. However, he paid great attention to criminal law, as the basic point for maintaining his own dictatorship. In order to finally “free himself from all enemies”, Hitler rejected the legal principle “there can be no punishment without crime”, focusing on something else - “there is no crime without punishment”, and the practical interpretation of this principle turned out to be very broad. Not only open resistance to the Nazi regime in any form, but also dissent was declared a crime. At the initiative of Hitler, a whole series of draconian laws was issued against everyone, who opposed, resisted or tried to organize conspiracies against his state, and first of all the Law on Emergency Powers, which made the Fuhrer's power unlimited. Litigation took place constantly throughout the years of the Third Reich. By 1945, the number of crimes classified by the authorities as “public crimes” had grown to 43% of the total, and the death sentences for them were passed almost invariably.

One of Hitler's main concerns was to rid the German legal system of all "Jewish elements". Practicing lawyers, jurists, judges of Jewish origin were gradually dismissed or fell under the "ban on the profession." In the process of Nazisification, all lawyers of the Third Reich were required to join the National Socialist Lawyers Association created by the authorities,which carefully monitored the activities of its members and coordinated their work in accordance with the principles of National Socialism. It was a matter of “honor” for every lawyer to have disciplinary trials for those who committed such “serious” offenses as not using the Nazi salute “Heil Hitler!”. Those who did not take part in the elections to the Reichstag or in popular plebiscites could be excluded from the practice of law.

The German constitutional system was replaced under the Third Reich by a structure based on Hitler's personal ideas about the legal system. The election and independence of judges was abolished, the institution of jurors was eliminated. All judges were appointed by the Nazi Minister of Justice. They were required to adhere not to the letter of the law, but to the “interests of the nation”, the principles of “populism”, in order to suppress the slightest manifestation of anti-Nazi behavior and eradicate “obstructionists”. It was declared their patriotic duty to make judicial decisions based on the principles of the Nazi worldview. in trials was strengthened, while the role of judges and lawyers was weakened.Counsel teams in criminal trials were approved by the prosecutor.Trial procedures and verdicts on the ground were under the full control of localichgauleiters, Reichsstatthalters or SS leaders . Many former judges were dismissed because they "did not act in the interests of the National Socialist state." It became a widespread practice to appoint young, inexperienced, but considered trustworthy, Nazis to key legal posts. University students studying law were constantly monitored and indoctrinated by Nazi ideology.

The courts of the Third Reich gained notoriety due to violence and arbitrariness. Their verdicts aroused the passive indignation of the representatives of the old legal school. Political defendants were often sentenced to compulsory confinement in a psychiatric clinic. Those who were found guilty of "racial pollution" (for example, mixed Jewish-German marriages) were sentenced from 10 years in prison to the death penalty. In 1937, a decree of the Ministry of Justice was issued, stating that beatings of those arrested during the investigation were considered acceptable in the interests of the case, but that such beatings should be limited to the buttocks and should not exceed 25 blows. In 1939, a special division of the Supreme Court was established, which carried out the filing of a claim bypassing the courts of lower instances.

After the outbreak of World War II, the Nazi legal system became even more stringent. Hundreds of thousands of citizens of the Third Reich were convicted for dissent, for unwillingness to support the war, or for criticizing the Fuhrer. A German pastor was sentenced to death for indulging in a joke about the Nazi authorities. The number of executions rose from 926 in 1940 to 5336 in 1943, with no distinction made between adults and teenagers; beginning in 1941, death sentences could be imposed on boys aged 14-16. By 1942, the last vestige of judges' independence had disappeared when it became standard procedure and widespread practice to determine the outcome of a case before a trial began.

To protect his own regime from any encroachment, Hitler in 1942 established the so-called. The People's Tribunal , chaired by Roland Freisler, dealt with especially dangerous state crimes and became a parody of the rule of law. During the meeting, the accused had to prove his innocence, and the defense turned into a farce. There was no way to escape the death penalty in this court. With the establishment of the People's Tribunal, the legal system of Nazism completely discarded the last signs of any legality.

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"Yagdbomber"

(Zadsioloteg; Zabo), a light fighter-bomber of the German Air Force.

Jagdgeschwader

(Zadsіdevsііѵѵасіег; ЗС), a fighter squadron of the German Air Force. It consisted of three links (Sgirrep).

"Jagdferbende"

(ZadsІѵerhapsІe), special units of the SS, designed to carry out sabotage and terrorist operations, commanded by Otto Skorzeny.

Jagdfliegerführer

(ZadsIIIedegTieІіgeg; Zaіie), the title of commander of the middle level of fighter aircraft of the German Air Force.

Jan, Erich

(Saipp), leader of the Berlin Nazi Youth. Born July 23, 1907 in the family of a printing worker. As a teenager, he joined the Bismarck League youth organization in Berlin, and in 1929 he joined the Nazi movement. Soon he became the head of the Berlin organization "Hitler Youth", and also played a prominent role in the nationwide Nazi youth movement.

Jannings, Emil

(Zappipdz), (1886-1950), theater and film actor popular in the Third Reich.

19 Zak. 1871

Timeline of the Third Reich

1889

20 April. Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn, Austria.

1893

January 12th. In Rosenheim, Upper. Bavaria, Hermann Göring was born.

1897

29th of October. Paul Joseph Goebbels was born in Reidt, Rhineland.

1900

October 7th. Heinrich Himmler was born in Munich.

1914

August 1. The beginning of the 1st World War.

August 3rd. Hitler volunteers to join the Bavarian Imperial Regiment.

1916

October 7th. Hitler gets shrapnel wound.

1917

September 17th. Hitler was awarded the Bavarian Cross of Merit.

1918

August 4th. Hitler was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st class.

October 13th. Hitler's second wound. After being gassed, he temporarily lost his sight.

November 9. November Revolution in Germany. Proclamation of the Weimar Republic, whose first president was Friedrich Ebert.

11th of November. Compiègne truce. Capitulation of Germany. End of the 1st World War.

November 16th. 250,000th demonstration in Berlin led by Spartacists.

December 30th. The founding congress of the Communist Party of Germany.

1919

5 January. Creation of the German Workers' Party. General strike in Berlin.

January 15. The murder of nationalists Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht.

February 21st. Murder in Munich of Kurt Eisner.

April 13 - May 1. Bavarian Soviet Republic.

1. April. An attempt by the Red Guards to arrest Hitler.

1. June. Signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

1. July. Adoption of the Weimar Constitution.

1920

24 February. Promulgation of the Nazi party program (“25 points”). The founding congress of the NSDAP in Munich.

March 12-17. Kapp Putsch in Berlin.

August, 26th. Assassination of Finance Minister Matthias Erzberger by far-right extremists.

1921

February 3rd. The first mass meeting of the NSDAP in Munich.

July 29. Hitler is proclaimed chairman of the NSDAP.

November 4th. Creation of SA.

1922

16 April. Signing of the Rappal Treaty between Germany and Soviet Russia.

June 24. Assassination of Walther Rathenau.

December 26th. Germany's refusal to comply with the terms of the Reparations Commission.

1923

January 11th. Occupation of the Ruhr and the Rhineland by Franco-Belgian troops.

28 January. The first Nazi "Party Day" held in Munich.

26 of May. Albert Leo Schlageter was executed by the French occupation authorities in the Rhineland.

August 11-14. General German strike.

October 23-25. The Hamburg uprising of the workers under the leadership of Ernst Thalmann.

November 8-9. Hitler-Ludendorff Nazi putsch in Munich ("Beer putsch").

11th of November. Hitler's arrest.

November 23rd. Decree of President Ebert dissolving the KKE and the NSDAP.

1924

February 26th. The beginning of the trial of Hitler and other leaders of the "Beer Putsch".

April 1st. Hitler is sentenced to 5 years in Landsberg Prison. The beginning of his work on the book "Mein Kampf".

May 4th. Reichstag elections. The Nazis received 6.4% of the vote.

August 29th. The Dawes Plan was adopted by the Reichstag.

December 7th. Reichstag elections. The Nazis received 3% of the vote.

December 20. Release of Hitler from prison.

1925

1. February. Reconstruction of the NSDAP.

1. February. Friedrich Ebert, president of the Weimar Republic, has died.

1. Martha. Presidential elections. The Nazi-nominated General Erich Ludendorff received only 211,000 votes.

26 April. Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg was elected the second president of the Weimar Republic.

July 12-17. Berlin Congress of the KKE. Ernst Thalmann is elected General Secretary of the KKE.

the 14 th of July. The beginning of the withdrawal of the occupying troops from the Ruhr.

18 July. The 1st volume of Mein Kampf is out of print.

October 5-16. Locarno conference. Signing of the Locarno Accords.

12 October. The conclusion of the Soviet-German trade agreement.

1926

April 24th. Berlin Treaty “On Friendship and Neutrality” between Germany and the USSR.

3 July. Nazi "Party Day" held in Weimar.

8 September. Germany's entry into the League of Nations.

December 1. Hitler appoints Goebbels Gauleiter of Berlin.

1927

1. Martha. The official lifting of the ban on Hitler's speeches.

1. August. The Nazi "Party Day" held in Nuremberg, where for the first time 30,000 SA storm troopers marched.

1928

1. May. Reichstag elections. The Nazis get 12 seats in parliament.

November 16th. Hitler's speech at a mass Nazi rally in Berlin.

November. Start of construction of new class “A” battleships.

1929

1. January. Himmler appointed Reichsfuehrer SS.

1. June. Publication of Young's new reparation plan.

1. August. Nazi "Party Day" in Nuremberg, which was attended by 150 thousand people.

1930

January 23. Nazi Wilhelm Frick appointed Thuringian Minister of the Interior.

January. Final approval of Young Plan payments.

February 23. The assassination of Horst Bessel, who was later declared a "martyr" by Nazi propaganda.

March 28th. Heinrich Brüning is proclaimed Chancellor of Germany.

30 June. French troops leave the Rhine zone.

2 September. Hitler declares himself supreme leader of the SA.

September 14th. Reichstag elections. The Nazis get 107 out of 577 parliamentary seats.

Dec. 31. A central SS office for racial issues and resettlement was created, headed by Richard-Walter Darre.

1931

September 14th. The Nazis get the most votes in the elections in Hesse.

October 11. Harzburg conference with participation of representatives of ultra-right political parties and movements. Creation of the Harzburg Front.

16 October. Large demonstration of the SA in Braunschweig.

1932

January 27th. Hitler's speech before a meeting of Rhineland industrial magnates in Düsseldorf (“Düsseldorf Speech”).

25 February. Hitler receives German citizenship.

March 13. Presidential elections. Hitler wins 13.7 million votes.

April 10th. Hindenburg was re-elected President of the Weimar Republic.

14th of April. Chancellor Brüning forbids the activities of the SA and SS.

May 30. Brüning's resignation.

June 1st. Franz von Papen appointed Chancellor of Germany.

June 16th. Von Papen lifts the ban on SA and SS activities.

July 31st. Reichstag elections. The Nazis get 230 seats in parliament out of 608.

August 13th. Hitler refuses the offer of President Hindenburg to take one of the posts in the government.

November 6th. Reichstag elections. The Nazis get 196 seats in parliament.

December 3rd. General Kurt von Schleicher has been appointed Chancellor of Germany.

1933

4 January. A secret meeting between Hitler and von Papen in Cologne, at the home of the banker Kurt von Schroeder, at which the role of Hitler in the future government was discussed.

28 January. Resignation of Chancellor von Schleicher.

January 30. Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany.

February 4th. Law for the Defense of the German Nation.

February 17. The German police begin to act in conjunction with the SS and SA, who are allowed to "use weapons if necessary."

February 22. Goering, appointed minister without portfolio, establishes an auxiliary police force of 50,000, consisting mainly of members of the SS and SA.

1. February. Arson of the Reichstag building. About 4,000 people, mostly communists and liberals, were arrested on charges of involvement in this.

1. February. President Hindenburg signed a decree granting Hitler emergency powers and restricting constitutional freedoms. The arrest of members of the communist faction in the Reichstag.

1. Martha. Arrest of Ernst Thalmann.

1. Martha. Reichstag elections. The Nazis won 288 seats in parliament.

1. Martha. Himmler is appointed police president of Munich.

1. Martha. Goebbels was appointed Reich Minister of Public Education and Propaganda.

1. Martha. The activities of the KKE and other parties are prohibited.

1. Martha. Hjalmar Schacht was appointed President of the Reichsbank.

1. Martha. The Fuhrer's personal guard regiment, the SS Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler, was created under the command of Sepp Dietrich.

1. Martha. Speech by the Minister of Justice of Bavaria, Hans Frank, threatening the Austrian government, which persecuted the Austrian Nazis.

1. Martha. The Reichstag approved the granting of emergency powers to Hitler for a period of 4 years.

1. Martha. Adoption of the “Law for the Protection of the People and the Reich”.

April 1st. All-German boycott of shops and businesses owned by Jews. The beginning of the expulsion of Jews from universities.

April 7th. Enactment of the anti-Semitic “Aryan Law” (“Public Service Law”).

Hitler's speech declaring that he intends to "destroy Christianity in Germany in the most fundamental way."

April 11. Goering led the German delegation to the negotiations in Italy.

The 21st of April. Appointment of Rudolf Hess as Deputy Fuhrer for the NSDAP.

26 April. Creation of the Gestapo.

May 2. Prohibition of the activities of trade unions. Their leadership was arrested and their property confiscated. The German Labor Front was formed.

May 10. Burning of books at the University of Berlin and throughout Germany.

May 17th. Prohibition of the right to strike.

1. мая. С целью свержения австрийского правительства Германия ввела налог в 10ОО марок для каждого, въезжающего в Австрию немца, что существенно уменьшило приток туристов в страну.

1. May. The League of Nations condemned the persecution of Jews in Germany.

1. June. SD education.

June 19. The Austrian government banned the activities of the Nazi Party in their country.

22nd of June. The activities of the Social Democratic Party are banned in Germany.

June 29. Göring's order for the construction of the Luftwaffe (about 320 aircraft by October 1934).

5'th of July. Dissolution of all Catholic parties and associations in Germany.

July 15. Signing of a quadripartite pact between Britain, France, Italy and Germany.

July 20. The signing of the Concordat between the Vatican and Germany.

September 3rd. Hitler issued a statement that he was renouncing war as an instrument of politics, making an exception for Bolshevism: "By waging war on Bolshevism, Germany ... is fulfilling a European mission."

1. September - December 23. The Leipzig Trial on G. Dimitrov's charge of setting fire to the Reichstag.

1. September. The Chamber of Culture was established.

October 1st. 9 members of the generals who criticized Hitler were dismissed.

October 14. Germany's withdrawal from the League of Nations.

November 12th. Reichstag elections. 93% of voters voted for the NSDAP.

December 18th. The government approved the activities of the SS and SA as organizations whose only task is "to unite the masses of the people in order to prevent the communist threat in the future."

December 28th. General Kurt von Hammerstein, the last serious opponent of Hitler in the armed forces, has retired.

1934

1st of January. The German government approved a new program for the construction of the Luftwaffe (4 thousand aircraft by October 1935), according to which civil airline pilots began to be trained, including at the Soviet secret air base near Lipetsk.

January 26th. The signing of the German-Polish non-aggression pact.

January 30. Adoption of the Law on the Territorial Reorganization of the Reich.

20 April. Himmler is appointed head of the Prussian Gestapo.

June 14-15. Meeting of Hitler and Mussolini in Venice.

30 June. "Night of the Long Knives" The assassination of Ernst Röhm and other leaders of the SA.

3 July. The Reichstag approved the actions of the SS and Hitler's personal participation during the "bloody purge".

1. July. The withdrawal of the SS from the subordination of the SA.

1. July. Assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss.

1. July. Appointment of von Papen as emissary of Austria.

August 2. President Paul von Hindenburg has died. Hitler proclaims himself the head of the German state. The German armed forces take the oath of allegiance to the Fuhrer.

August 19. An all-German plebiscite confirmed Hitler's authority as President and Chancellor of the Reich. 89.93% of the country's citizens expressed their support for it.

October 1st. Hitler's secret order to increase the army and build a navy.

1935

13th of January. Plebiscite on the return of the Saarland to the Reich. "For" voted 91% of citizens.

March 1. Annexation of the Saarland to the Reich.

March 9 Foreign military attachés in Germany were officially notified of the creation of the Luftwaffe in the country.

March 16th. The introduction of universal conscription in Germany. Plans for the construction of 36 divisions (about 550 thousand people) were announced.

April 9th. A Soviet-German trade agreement was signed, under which the Soviet Union was granted a loan of 200 million marks for the purchase of German goods.

April 11. Great Britain, France and Italy opposed the introduction of compulsory military service in Germany.

May 21st. Hitler spoke in the Reichstag with a program of peaceful coexistence.

June 18th. The conclusion of the Anglo-German naval agreement.

June 26th. The introduction of compulsory labor service.

September 15th. Passage of the Nuremberg laws on citizenship and race

The swastika is officially approved as part of the German national flag.

September 28th. The introduction of government control over the activities of the Protestant church. Hans Kerrl was appointed Reich Minister for Religious Affairs.

October 3rd. Italian invasion of Ethiopia.

January 17. In Berlin, Goebbels delivered a speech: "We can do without oil, but in spite of all our love for the world, we cannot do without weapons."

February 10th. The official law creating the Gestapo, giving Himmler full control over the secret services.

March 7th. Annulment of the Locarno Accords by Hitler. German troops enter the Rhine demilitarized zone.

March 29. The number of SS reached 3.5 thousand people.

June 17. Himmler is appointed head of the German police.

July 11th. The conclusion of the German-Austrian agreement.

August 23. Manifesto of the German Confessional Church.

9th of September. The proclamation of the "Four Year Plan" is the beginning of the transfer of the German economy to a war footing.

Goebbels made accusations against the Czechoslovak government for providing bases for Soviet military aircraft.

the 25th of October. Italo-German agreement - "Berlin-Rome Axis".

November 6th. In Spain, on the side of the Francoists, the Condor Legion (about 6.5 thousand people, 96 aircraft, 32 tanks and artillery) began hostilities.

November 18th. Official recognition by Germany and Italy of the regime of Francisco Franco.

November 25. The signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact by Germany and Japan.

December 1. Decree on the Creation of the Titler Youth Organization.

1. December. Faculty members of the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Bonn demanded that Thomas Mann be stripped of his doctorate.

1937

1. January. Austria has declared an amnesty for all Austrian Nazis.

1. January. Germany announced that all naval vessels must obtain permission from the German naval command before passing through the Kiel Canal.

January 30. Hitler demanded the return of all former German colonies torn from Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

March 14th. Pope Pius XI's encyclical: “With deep concern...”

April 27th. German Luftwaffe bombardment of the Spanish town of Guernica.

29 April. Göring ordered that the production of four-engine heavy bombers be stopped.

June 1st. Pastor Martin Niemöller was arrested for protesting government control of the church.

September 7th. Official annulment by Germany of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Hitler announced the demand for Germany "living space" ("lebensraum").

- 18 October. Speech by the Sudeten Germans demanding autonomy.

1. november. "Hossbach meeting", at which Hitler announced his aggressive plans.

1. november. Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact.

November 19th. Secret negotiations between Hitler and British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax.

Sudeten German leader Konrad Henlein urged Hitler to immediately solve the problem of Czechoslovakia's German-speaking minority.

December 11th. Italy's withdrawal from the League of Nations.

1938

February 2-4. Minister of War Werner von Blomberg and Commander-in-Chief of the Land Forces Werner von Fritsch were fired.

February 4th. General Wilhelm Keitel is appointed Chief of Staff of the German High Command (OKW).

Joachim von Ribbentrop appointed German Foreign Minister.

12th of February. The Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg, at the request of Hitler, arrived in Berchtesgaden to discuss German-Austrian problems.

February, 15. Arthur Seyss-Inquart has been appointed Interior Minister of Austria.

February 20th. Hitler spoke in the Reichstag with threats against Austria.

March 4th. Hitler demanded from the Czechoslovak government the right for the Sudeten Germans to self-determination.

1. Martha. Resignation of Austrian Chancellor von Schuschnigg.

1. Martha. Anschluss of Austria. German troops crossed the Austrian border.

March 22. Germany guaranteed the inviolability of the Hungarian borders after Budapest recognized the Anschluss of Austria.

April 10th. As a result of the plebiscite held in Austria, 99% of citizens voted for the Anschluss.

April 24th. The leader of the Sudeten German Party, Konrad Henlein, demanded autonomy for the Sudeten Germans.

April 27th. The official Nazi newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter, launched an anti-Semitic campaign.

May 3-9. Hitler's visit to Italy.

May 20. Partial mobilization in Czechoslovakia.

May 29. Hitler demanded that the construction of the Western Wall be accelerated and its garrison increased.

1. August. Large-scale military maneuvers began in Germany. "Under the gun" was called 750 thousand people.

1. August. Germany has announced plans to build a Navy.

1. August. General Ludwig Beck was dismissed from the post of Chief of the German General Staff.

August 28. Hitler made an inspection tour of the defenses along Germany's western border.

September 1. Meeting of Hitler and Henlein, which discussed the Sudetenland problem.

September 15-22. Hitler's talks with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.

September 18th. Hitler's military meeting with the generals about the upcoming invasion of Czechoslovakia. Martial law has been introduced in Czechoslovakia.

September 20th. Hitler promised Poland and Hungary support for their territorial demands on Czechoslovakia.

September 26th. Hitler's speech in Berlin in which he promised that the Sudetenland would be his last territorial claim in Europe.

September 29-30. Munich Agreement between Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain and Daladier.

October 1st. Occupation of the Sudetenland. Dismemberment of Czechoslovakia.

28 of October. Deportation of the first group of Polish Jews outside the Third Reich.

1. november. In Paris, the secretary of the German embassy, ​​Ernst vom Rath, was mortally wounded by the Polish Jew Herschel Grunszpan.

1. november. Kristallnacht is an all-German Jewish pogrom.

1. november. An indemnity of 1 billion marks was imposed on the German Jews.

1. november. Jewish students were expelled from German schools.

November 23rd. The Nazi government of Danzig passed a series of discriminatory laws against Jews.

December 3rd. Decree on the forced transfer of enterprises and shops owned by Jews to the ownership of the Aryans.

December 6. The signing of the Franco-German declaration of mutual non-aggression.

December 11th. In the elections in Memel, the Nazis received 90 percent of the support of voters.

December 19th. All Jews in Danzig were ordered to leave the city by April 1, 1939.

1339

1. January. Hitler demanded the return of Danzig to the Reich.

1. January. Walter Funk was appointed president of the Reichsbank instead of the dismissed Hjalmar Schacht.

1. January. Göring commissioned Reinhard Heydrich to prepare a program for the deportation of Jews from Germany.

1. January. Ribbentrop's visit to Poland with the aim of joining the Anti-Comintern Pact.

1. January. Hitler declared that Germany had no territorial claims against Great Britain and France, except for the return of German colonies.

1. Martha. Pope Pius XII criticized Nazism in his encyclical On the Position of the Catholic Church in the German Reich.

1. Martha. occupation of Czechoslovakia. The protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was formed, headed by the former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Germany, von Neurath.

21 March. Germany offered Poland as compensation for Danzig Slovakia.

March 23. Occupation of the Memel Territory by Germany. German troops entered Klaipeda. Hitler visited Memel aboard a warship.

March, 25. For the first time, Hitler declared that the "Polish problem" could be solved by military means. Keitel and Brauchitsch were instructed to develop plans for military action against Poland (Plan Weiss).

April 7th. Italian troops invaded Albania.

April 27th. Termination of the maritime agreement with the UK.

1. May. Conclusion of a military-political alliance with Italy - "Pact of Steel".

1. May. Hitler notified his generals that war with Poland was inevitable: "For us it is a matter of expanding living space in the East."

May 31 - June 7. Conclusion of non-aggression pacts with Estonia, Latvia and Denmark.

4th of July. German Jews are prohibited from holding public office.

21 July. Adolf Eichmann is appointed head of the Prague Office for Jewish Emigration.

8 August. An extensive propaganda campaign against Poland began in the German press.

August 19. The conclusion of the Soviet-German trade agreement.

1. August. The signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact.

The Danzig Senate appointed Albert Forster Gauleiter of Danzig.

1. August. Appeal of Pope Pius XII with a call for peace.

1. August. Signing of the Anglo-Polish agreement.

September 1. German invasion of Poland. The beginning of the 2nd World War.

On the territory of Poland, the SD began its activities.

Jews in Germany are forbidden to leave their homes after 8 pm.

1. September. France and Britain declare war on Germany.

1. September. German troops surrounded Warsaw.

September 13th. The German High Command announced that, if the Polish population takes part in hostilities, civilian targets will be bombed.

September 17th. Soviet troops crossed the Polish border.

September 21. Reinhard Heydrich announced the creation of a ghetto in Poland.

1. September. German Jews are forbidden to have radios.

1. September. German troops occupied Warsaw.

1. October. Hitler approached the governments of Great Britain and France with a proposal for an armistice.

1. October. Himmler appointed Reich Commissioner for the Consolidation of the German Nation.

12 October. Expulsion of Jews from Vienna.

October 26th. Hans Frank appointed Governor General of Poland.

November 8th. Assassination attempt on Hitler in the Munich beer hall “Bürgerbraukeller”.

November 21. Great Britain imposed a blockade on German exports.

November 30th. The beginning of the war between the USSR and Finland. Bombing of Helsinki.

December 17th. On the Montevideo roadstead, the German cruiser Graf Spee was sunk.

1940

4 January. Goering received full power over German industry.

12th of February. The beginning of the deportation of Jews from Germany.

March 1. Hitler issued a military directive for the upcoming invasion of Norway and Denmark.

March 12th. A peace treaty was signed in Moscow between Finland and the USSR.

April 9th. German attack on Denmark and Norway. USSR Foreign Minister Molotov told the German ambassador in Moscow; "We wish Germany a successful completion of these defensive measures."

April 27th. Himmler ordered the construction of the Auschwitz concentration camp.

May 10. German attack on Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

Beginning of the German offensive against France.

Chamberlain's resignation. Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1. May. Capitulation of Holland.

1. May. German troops entered Brussels.

1. May. Occupation of Antwerp.

26 of May. Beginning of the Dunkirk evacuation.

June 4th. German troops captured Dunkirk.

June 10th. Italy declared war on Britain and France.

June 14th. German troops bypassed the Maginot Line and entered Paris.

June 15-16. Soviet troops occupied Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.

22nd of June. Capitulation of France. Compiègne truce.

1. July. Beginning of air raids on Great Britain.

1. August. Beginning of the Battle of England.

1. August. Adolf Eichmann announced a plan to resettle European Jews in Madagascar.

1. September. Abdication of the Romanian King Carol II.

1. September. The beginning of large-scale bombing of London.

September 15th. Germany's biggest defeat in the "Battle of England": 185 German aircraft shot down.

September 17th. Hitler abandoned plans to invade Britain.

September 27. Signing in Berlin of the trilateral military-political pact "Rome-Berl Axis in Tokyo".

October 7th. The occupation of Romania by German troops.

16 October. Military mobilization in the USA.

22 of October. Deportation of Jews from the Saar and Alsace-Lorraine.

28 of October. Italian troops occupied Greece.

1. november. German bombing of Coventry.

1. December. British troops landed in Libya.

1941

January 31st. Establishment in Frankfurt am Main of the first "Judenrat" - a body of Jewish self-government.

12th of February. General Erwin Rommel is appointed commander of the Afrika Korps.

1. Martha. Bulgaria joined the trilateral pact.

2. Martha. German troops entered Bulgaria.

1. Martha. The large-scale offensive of German troops in the North. Africa.

1. Martha. coup d'état in Yugoslavia; Peter II ascended the throne.

1. April. German invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece.

1. April. German troops entered Athens.

May 10. Flight of Rudolf Hess to Scotland.

May 14. Martin Bormann is appointed Hess's successor.

3,600 Jews arrested in Paris.

May 20. The landing of German troops on Crete.

May 27th. The German battleship Bismarck was sunk in the North Atlantic.

2 June. Meeting of Hitler and Mussolini at the Brenner Pass.

June 18th. Signing of the German-Turkish peace treaty.

22nd of June. German attack on the USSR.

July, 12. An Anglo-Soviet agreement on mutual assistance was signed in Moscow.

July 17th. Alfred Rosenberg appointed Reich Commissioner for the Eastern Occupied Territories.

21 July. Majdanek concentration camp established.

July 31st. Göring ordered Reinhard Heydrich to develop a plan for the deportation of all European Jews.

August 9-12. Meeting of Roosevelt and Churchill on about. Newfoundland.

August 14th. Signing of the Atlantic Charter.

8 September. German troops carried out the blockade of Leningrad.

1. September. Secret Anglo-German negotiations for a separate peace in Lisbon.

1. September. Beginning of the general deportation of German Jews.

1. September. German troops occupied Kyiv.

23 September. The first gas chambers were built in Auschwitz.

2 October. The beginning of the German offensive on Moscow.

November 18th. British counter-offensive in the North. Africa.

November 25. Signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact in Berlin.

1. December. The beginning of the Soviet counter-offensive near Moscow.

1. December. Japanese attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor.

1. December. Japan declared war on the US and Britain.

December 11th. Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.

December 13th. Hungary and Bulgaria declared war on the US.

December 19th. General Walther von Brauchitsch was removed from the post of commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht. Hitler becomes Supreme Commander of the German Armed Forces.

1942

1st of January. 26 countries have signed the United Nations Declaration.

January 20th. Wannsee meeting at which the “Final Solution” was adopted.

February 9th. Albert Speer is appointed Minister of Armaments and War Industry of Germany.

March 15th. Hitler announced the completion of the Russian campaign by the summer.

1. Martha. Fritz Sauckel is appointed Commissioner for the recruitment of labor in the occupied territories.

1. April. Jews are forbidden to use public transport.

1. May. Conclusion of an agreement between the USSR and England on an alliance in the war against Germany.

1. May. German counteroffensive in the North. Africa.

1. May. Assassination attempt on Reinhard Heydrich in Prague.

May 30-31. Large-scale bombing of Cologne by the British Air Force.

June 4th. Reinhard Heydrich died from his wounds.

June 10th. The destruction by the Nazis of the population of the Czechoslovak town of Lidice.

June 23rd. The beginning of the destruction of prisoners in the gas chambers of Auschwitz.

June 24. General Eisenhower is appointed commander of the combined armed forces in the European theater of operations.

August 23. The beginning of the German offensive on Stalingrad.

October 23. Allied troops under the command of General Montgomery launched an offensive in the El Alamein area in the North. Africa.

29th of October. Action of mass extermination of 16 thousand Jews in Pinsk.

November 5. Rommel's defeat at El Alamein.

November 7-8. The landing of the Anglo-American troops in the North. Africa.

11th of November. German troops began an invasion of the unoccupied territory of France.

November 19-22. Beginning of the Soviet counter-offensive at Stalingrad.

20 November. General Montgomery's troops occupied Benghazi.

November 27th. In Toulon, the French navy is scuttled by its crews.

1943

January 18th. Beginning of the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto.

January 30. Ernst Kaltenbrunner is appointed head of the Reichs Main Security Office (RSHA).

February 2. Surrender near Stalingrad of the remnants of the 6th army of Paulus.

February, 15. Soviet troops liberated Rostov and Lugansk.

18th of Febuary. Student anti-Hitler demonstration in Munich.

March 13. Assassination attempt on Hitler near Smolensk.

21 March. Unsuccessful attempt on Hitler's life at a Heroes' Day ceremony in Berlin.

April 5. Arrest of Pastor Bonhoeffer.

19 April. The beginning of the operation to liquidate the Warsaw ghetto.

May 7th Allied troops entered Tunisia and Bizerte.

may 13. The surrender of German troops in the North. Africa.

10 July. Allied troops landed in Sicily.

July, 12. Beginning of the Battle of Kursk.

July 25th. Resignation of Mussolini. General Pietro Badoglio appointed Prime Minister of Italy.

25-th of August. Himmler is appointed Minister of the Interior of Germany.

September 3rd. Allied troops landed on the Italian mainland.

8 September. Italy's unconditional surrender.

10 September. German troops entered Rome.

September 13th. Benito Mussolini is liberated by Otto Skorzeny.

October 13th. Italy declared war on Germany.

October 19-30. Meeting in Moscow of the Foreign Ministers of Great Britain, the USSR and the USA.

November 6th. Soviet troops liberated Kyiv.

November 28 - December 1. Meeting of Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill in Tehran.

December 26th. The German battleship Scharnhorst sank in the North Sea.

1944

January 3rd Soviet troops reached the state border of the USSR.

January 19. Breakthrough of the Leningrad blockade.

April 5. General de Gaulle is proclaimed head of the French National Salvation Committee.

22 April. Soviet troops entered the territory of Romania.

June 4th. American troops liberated Rome.

June 6th Allied landing in Normandy.

3 July. Soviet troops liberated Minsk.

July 20. Failed assassination attempt on Hitler as a result of the July Plot.

July 25th. Goebbels is put in charge of carrying out "total war".

August 7-8. The trial of the participants in the "July plot".

8 August. Field Marshal Erwin von Witzleben and seven other generals involved in the plot against Hitler were executed.

August 23. Capitulation of Romania.

25-th of August. De Gaulle's troops entered Paris.

1. September. The signing of an armistice between Finland and the USSR.

1. September. The USSR declared war on Bulgaria.

12-th of September. Allied troops reached the German frontier in the West.

September 25th. Creation of the “Volk Sturm”.

October 14. Erwin Rommel committed suicide.

The 20th of October. Soviet troops entered Belgrade.

November 12th. Allied aircraft sank the battleship Tirpitz.

November 26th. Himmler ordered the destruction of the Auschwitz gas chambers.

December 16th. Counteroffensive operation of the troops of Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt in the Ardennes.

1945

January 14th. Soviet troops entered the territory of the East. Prussia.

January 17. Liberation of Warsaw.

January 20th. The provisional government of Hungary signed an armistice with the USSR.

January 27th. Liberation of Memel.

February 4-11. Yalta conference.

February 13. Soviet troops liberated Budapest.

March, 3rd. Finland declared war on Germany.

March 23. American troops crossed the Rhine and occupied the Ruhr.

1. April. President Roosevelt died. Harry Truman became President of the United States.

1. April. Soviet troops liberated Vienna.

1. April. Beginning of the Berlin operation.

1. April. Field Marshal Model committed suicide.

1. April. Fighting on the outskirts of Berlin.

1. April. Hitler ordered Göring's arrest.

1. April. Meeting of American and Soviet troops in Torgau on the Elbe.

1. April. Italian partisans executed Mussolini.

1. April. Admiral Dönitz appointed successor to the Fuhrer.

Marriage of Hitler and Eva Braun.

1. April. Hitler committed suicide. Eva Braun took poison. Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, having killed six of their children before that.

1. May. Field Marshal Rundstedt was taken prisoner near Munich.

2. May. Capitulation of German troops in Italy.

Admiral Karl Dönitz led the new government in Flensburg.

Capitulation of the Berlin garrison.

1. May. The German units surrendered in Hamburg.

1. May. Capitulation of German troops in Holland, Denmark and northern Germany.

The Americans arrested the Governor-General of Poland, Hans Frank.

1. May. General Alfred Jodl signed an act of unconditional surrender to the Allies at Reims.

Seyss-Inquart was arrested in Hamburg.

1. May. Goering was arrested in Austria.

1. May. Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel signed the act of unconditional surrender of Germany in Berlin.

1. May. German troops surrendered in Czechoslovakia.

1. May. Sepp Dietrich arrested.

1. июля — 2 августа. Потсдамская конференция.

1. May. Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg arrested in Flensburg.

May 21st. In Bremerwerde, a British patrol arrested Himmler.

20 November. Beginning of the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg.

Accepted abbreviations

AN8 - AcioIT-NiiIeg-8siiiiІe (Adolf Hitler's school)

A-88 - AІІdeteіpe-88 (General SS troops)

VOM - Vipsi Oeiіzsbeg MasіeІ (Union of German Girls)

VR - Wauegizsbe Goikzragiei (Bavarian People's Party)

OAU - Oeuissbe Agleiis-Egopi (German Labor Front)

□E5T - Oeijsche Egsi ipb 8ieipvvegke Sthn (German Corporation for Overburden Works)

OL – OeiІzskKez Lipdvoik (Young Germans)

ОІЧВР - Oeiіzsіpaііopаіe voіkzragіei (German National People's Party)

□Bk - Reissbeg PeisGizsBipsI Tyr 1_eibre- zdjipdep (German Imperial Union of Physical Culture)

□Vk - Oeijsbe Voikziіzie (Register of German nationality)

OVR - Oeisske Voikzragiei (German People's Party)

ЕѴV2 — ЕіпѵѵапсІеггггэпітаІзІеІІІе (Immigration Center)

EsIV - Geziidipd sieiizsbep Voikziitz (Strengthening the German people)

SVA - SepegaІbeѵoІІtasbііdep Тііг сіп Агэііізеіпзаіг (General Commissioner for Labor Distribution)

Seziaro - SeNeite Ziaaiz-RoIi / ei (Secret State Police)

CEM - Field Marshal

NL - Niiiiedidepsi (Hitler Youth)

UFO - Niiedidepsi Oisiziop (Hitler Youth Division)

H88PE - NbKege 88 opsi Roіііgeі Eikgeg (Supreme Leader of the SS and Police)

LM - iipdtasieyidgirrep (Younger age group of girls)

6V - bipdvoik (Young generation)

KbR - Kgaіi bigsiі Rgeibe (Strength through joy)

Kbvo - Kotpiziuzsseg bidepbveg- napsI OeiizsKiapbz (Communist Youth League of Germany)

KVV - Kіpbegiapbѵegzsіііiskipd (Export of children)

KRO - Koіltipizissіye Parіei Oeiі- zsіpіapbz (Communist Party of Germany)

KKIRO - Kgitipairoiigei (Criminal Police)

!_□ - banbbiepsi (Land Administration)

EKRA - Länbezkіtіpaіroіііgeіati (Prussian Criminal Police Office)

BZZAN - 1_eіbzіapbagіe 88 AboI Niiiieg (SS Personal Guard Regiment “Adolf Hitler”)

YAPOLA — ІХІаііонаІ-РоІіііізсІne lehgap- zіаіі (State Political Educational Establishment)

NYZVO - Іхіаііopaіzogіаіізіііззбе ВеігіеЬ- згэііепогдапіgaііop (National Socialist Party Cell at Work)

YZOAR - Iaiіopaіzogіаіізіізсііе Оеіі- зсНеАгэгэКеггіеі (National Socialist German Workers' Party)

YZR - MabopaіzogіаііізііззбЕ Егаиэп- зсііаііep (National Socialist Women's Association)

MZRK - Іhіаііоpaіzogіаііzііzsbeg РІііedeg-Коgrz (National Socialist Aviation Corps)

MEKK - ІChаііopaІzogіаІіzііізсІcheg Kgai- (аіігэг-Коgrz (National Socialist Motorized Mechanized Corps)

М55 - ІMaііоpaІzogіаІізііізсГіег 8сііііег- нipb (National Socialist League of Schoolchildren)

IZV - МііонаІzogіаІізііізсНе VOІкзѵѵоЫ- іабгі (National Socialist People's Charity)

OKN - Olegkotmanbo without Neerez (High Command of the Ground Forces)

OKI_ - Olegkottapbo run liyvaNe (High Command of the German Air Force)

OKVV - Olegkottapbo run VVeigtacii (Supreme High Command of the German Armed Forces)

ONRO— Ogbpipdzroiigei (Police law enforcement)

OZAR - Oberzier 8A-Euerer (SA Commander-in-Chief)

Р2 - Rapieg (Tank Troops)

P2K - Central Political Commission

CAO - Veis Gizagiebziepzi: (Imperial Labor Service)

KAІ_ - ReisszaizsiiiibipdzIadeg (Imperial training camps)

VRZZ - ReichsTiegeg-88 (Reichsführer SS)

CBR—Weissziidepbiybgipd (Imperial Youth Administration)

AKROV - Peісізізоктіззаг іyg bіе Res- іііdipd Oеіізссеп Воікзіцтз (Reich Commissariat for the Strengthening of the German Nation)

ЯІ_В - ReіsKzІеіrеgіnіpsі (Imperial Union of Teachers)

ВМВР - ВеісзтіпізІегіт Тyg Voik-zaiіkіagipd ipb Rgoradapba (Imperial Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda)

YARA - Yaeisszrgoradapbaati (Imperial Propaganda Office)

Ya8NA - ReisszzisNegІіeiІzKairati (General Directorate of Imperial Security)

Yai8NA - Razve-ipb 8іebіpdz Nairіati (General Directorate for Race and Resettlement)

РѴѴ - РеісНзѵѵеІіг (Reichswehr)

FOR - ZіgtaYeiіІipd (Assault squads)

8AL - Veglanb sieg Zogіаііізіізсііep Аr-bePedidepb (Union of Socialist Working Youth)

80 - ZisIzegbe Nzbiepzi (Security Service)

8OR - Zybeіep Oeiіzsіye Parіei (Sudet German Party)

8ІРО — ЗісІіегэПроІігэі (Security Police)

8PO - 8o2ia/sietokga1/5cje Pariei Oeii- ssYapbz (Social Democratic Party of Germany)

8NO - Zigeepsiiepzi: (Patrol Service)

88 - ZsbiIgziaTTeip (Security detachments)

88EA - ZZ-EgdapgipdzatІ (SS Department for the call of recruits)

88NA - 88-Na.irIatI (SS Headquarters)

88NK - 88-NeKegippep Kogrz (SS Auxiliary Women's Corps)

88TV - 88-Toiepkor ^ verghanbe (SS units "Dead Head")

88ѴТ — 88-ѴегТйдипдзІгирре (Войска СС особого назначения)

8T - ZiaPeI (Squadron)

IIZSNYA - ІіпІегзисНипдз- ипсі ЗсГіІі— сЫипдз- АиззсЬизз (Investigative Arbitration Committee)

ѴВ - іоікізсіег ВеоЬасЬег ("Фалькі- шер беобахтер")

VOA - Vegeip Tyg base Voikziit it Aiz-Iapb (Union of Foreign Germans)

voMi — voikzbeiіzsіie MіNeіzіeІІІе (Department for Liaison with Ethnic Germans)

VVVK - VVEGGERIGKZKOTTAPBO (District Recruit Office)

VVRA - VwebgtasІіІzTieiiigipdzatі: (Operational Directorate of the Ground Forces)

VVР81 - VVеІіgtaсІіізТіеІіпдззіа (Operational Directorate of the Supreme High Command of the German Armed Forces (OKW))

VVE – VVEGіgegІysYidipdzІadeg (Camps for training for military service)

VVKYa - VVeLgkgeiz (Military District)

VV-88 - VVAYaep-88 (SS Troops.)

VVVNA - VVIgizsbaYz ipsi VegVVaNipd-zbairiyat (Administrative and Economic Department of the SS)

Bibliography

1. Editions in Russian

Meacham, Samuel; Mueller, Jean. Commanders of the Third Reich. Smolensk, Rusich, 1995.

Delarue, Jacques. History of the Gestapo. Smolensk, Rusich, 1993.

Picker, Henry. Hitler's table talk. Smolensk, Rusich, 1993.

Goebbels, Joseph. The last notes.

Smolensk, Rusich, 1995

Shearer, Willam. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. Moscow, Military publishing house, 1991

Rauschning, Herman. Hitler speaks.

Beast from the abyss. Moscow, Myth, 1993 Prussakov, Valentin. The occult messiah and his Reich. Collection. New York - Moscow, Shakur-invest, 1991.

Khlebnikov, Georgy. Intimate life of Gplera. Moscow, Novina-Helios, 1995.

1. Publications based on authentic Nazi writings and documents from the Third Reich

Agepbi, Nappaya. Ogidipz o / Toiaiiiagiap- izt. ѴѵѴеѵѵѴогк: Нагсоигі, Вгасе, 1968.

Vaieg, ІiIMeIt. begtap Esopotis Roiisu. Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1939.

VoiYeg, P'iIirr. Asioii Niiieg: A 8iiogi Vkeisii oi Niz Tiie. Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1938.

ОедгеІІе, 1_еоп. Satraidp ip Gizzia: Tiie \ / Gaiiep-88 op iiie Eaziegp Egopi. Tog- gapse, SA: IpziIiiie yog NiziogisaI Regiye, 1985.

Oieigisii, Oiio. A Яеѵоіиііоп іп Тііоидііі. Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1939.

Oieigisii, Oiio. TiieZrigiiiaIEoipbaiiopz oi iiiie Ieѵѵ Eigore. Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1941.

Oieigisii, OH Fr. Suck n from op iiie Eepiz Pgesebipd iiie Oiibgeak oi iie I / ag. ІМеѵѵ гогк: бегтап ЬЬгагу оі Іпіог- таііоп, 1940.

Oogp, KagI. Gegkzioiie: Migasiez oiSeg- tap Siietizigu. ІМеѵѵ Уогк: бегтап ЬЬгагу оі Іпіогтаііоп, 1941.

Epeg, Abayegi. begtap Eogeziz: Tgea- zigez oi A Naiiop. ІМеѵѵ гогк: бегтап ЬЬгагу оі Іпіогтаііоп, 1940.

EssieI, Egiih. Segtap Taboig Zegise Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1937.

Eiigi, Asioii. Sottipizt ip begtapu: Tiie Tgiiii abiiii iii Sottipizi Sop- zrigasu op iiiie Ee oi iiie IaiiopaI Regoiiiiiop. Vegiip: bepegai! _Eadie oi ApiiSottipiziAzzosiaiiopz, 1933.

Ehsiiapde oi Sottipisaiiopz Veiѵѵeep iiie Rgezibep i oi iiiie ipiieb 8ia iez apb iiie SiiapseiIog oi iii Segtap Reisii, Argi11939. Negogk: Begtap iBgagu oi Ipiogtaiiop, 1939.

EesIeg, boiiigiesi. Niieg'z Oiiisiai Rgodatte apb Iz EipbatepiaI Ibeaz kopbop: beogde AIIep & kipgip, 1934.

Egegskz, Niboii. Segtap Roriiaiiop Roiisu. Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1938.

Egizs, Negtapp. Tiie VesopP Nipdeg VIoskasie. IMEG GOGK: Segtap Y'gagu oi Ipiogtaiiop, 1941.

Еипк, ѴѴаІіЬег. Tiiie Esopotis Riiige o / Eigore. Published in: Teggatage Oiiise, 1940.

Segtap Giiiie Vook: Eositepiz Sop- segpipd Iiie Bazi Riiaze oiiiie Segtap- Roiizii Sgiziz. Meg Gogk: Segtap Y- Bgagu oi Ipiogtaiiop , 1939.

Segtap Uoiiii ip a SIapdipd Gogisi Roigiii Esiiiiop. Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1936.

Segtapu: Racis apsi Ridigez. Mehl / Gogk: Segtap Ybgagu oi Ipiogtaiiop, 1941.

Segtapu Vreax. Böpgiop: Viiepl / ogi, 1938.

Sogipd, Negtapp. Tiie RoIiiisaI Tezia tepi oi Negtapp Sogipd: A beiesiiiop oi Itrogiapi 8rees'ez apsi Agiisiez. Esiiiesi apsi igapziaiesi bue N.G. VIoosi- Ruap. Пепсіоп: ЗоЬп І_опд, 1939.

Sgitt, Egiesigis. Tie Vidpiiiapse o / TIIiz Gag. Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1940.

Sgitt, Egiesigis. GegzaiIIz ep iidiisia Pop. Vegiip: Teggatage Oiiise, 1938.

Sgiihbas, Egis. Negtapp Sogipd: Tiie Map apsi Niz Gogk. Lopsiop: Nigzi & Viaskeii, 1939.

Neiph, Neipg A. Segtapu'z Niiieg. Lopsiop: Nigzi & Viaskeii, 1934.

Niiieg, Asioii .

Niiieg, Asioii .Asioii Niiieg Rgot Vreesiiez, 1933-1938. Esiiesie Bsu Rishassi Mop- under. Vegiip; Teggatage Oiiise, 1938.

Niiieg, Asioii. Segtapu Oesiagez iog Rease: ReiskazpgIeg Asioii Niiieg Asi- sigezzipd Ie Segtap Ichaiiop op Osio- Leg 14, 1933. Vegiip: YeBeii & Tie- zep, 1933.

Niiieg, Asioii. Meip Katri. Tgapziaiegi bu Jaair Mapeit. Voziop: Noidiop Miiiip, 1971.

Niiieg, Asioii. Meip Katri. Tgapziaiesi u ZatezMigra. Lopsiop: Nigzi & Viaskeii, 1939.

Niiieg, Asioii. Tiie Ieѵѵ Segtapu Oezigez Gogk apsi Rease: Zrees'ez Wu Reis' SapseiIIog Asioii Niiieg, ibe Leasieg oi ie Mehl / Segtapu. Vegiip: ЬеЬеіі & Тьезеп, 1933.

Niiieg, Asioii. Op .

Kaizeg, Egiih. Епіагіеіе 'Кйпзі' АизіеІ- Іипдзіиіігег [Недепегаіе "Агі" ЕхіііЫ- ііоп Сиісіе], ігапзіаіесі Ьу ОаѵісІ Вгііі, іп Оедепегаіе Агі": Тііе Еаіе оі іііе Аѵапі~Сагсіе іп Иахі Сегтапу рр. 356- 390. Есіііесі Ьу ЗіерЬапіе Ваггоп. Ьоз АпдеІез: І_оз АпдеІез Соипіу Мизеит оі Агі / ІМеѵѵ Гогк: Аггатз, 1991.

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Ііііезібе, Апбгеѵѵ С. Тііе 5осіаІізт оі Еооіз: беогд Риііег поп 5сІіопегег апси Аізігіап Рап-бегтапізт. Vegkeieu: Iipiegziu oi Saiiogpia Rgezz, 1975.

Content

“A-A” 11

AB action 11
Abwehr 12 Abwehr-policeman 14 Abec, Otto 14 "Ultimate Weapon"	14
Abshnit 14 Aviation in the Third Reich	14
Austrian Legion 14 Autarky 15 Autobany 15 Agrarianpolitisher apparatus	16
Adam, Wilhelm 16 Adenauer, Conrad 16 Adler und Falke 17 Adlerangriffe 17 Adlertag 18 “Adolf the Lawyer” 18 Adolf Hitler Foundation	18
Adolf Hitler School	19
"Aida" 19 Einsatzgruppen 19 Icestoss 21 "Aihe" 21 "Photo" 21 Axman, Arthur 22 "Alarich" 22 Alexander of Tunis	22
Allket 23 Allgemeine SS 23 Allgemeines Wehrmachtsamt	23
Alpine Violet'23 Alpine Redoubt 23 Alte Kempfer 24 Altmark 24 Altona 24 Alfart, Felix 24 Aman, Max 24 Amnesty 1934 25 Amnesty 1939 25 Amt ausland Abwer 25

Anglo-German Naval Agreement 1935 25

“Angrif” 25

“Angstbrooch” 27

Anders, Vladislav 27

Anenpass 27

Anenschein 27

"Anenerbe" 27

Entente, Balkanskaya 28

Entente Malaya 28

Anti-Hitler Coalition 29

“Anti-Comintern Pact” 29

Anti-Semitism 30 “Anton” 31

Antonescu 31

Anshlyus 31

Arbait Maht Fry 34
Arbeitbukh 34 Arbeitertum 34
Arbeitsainzatzführer Arbaitsamt 34 Arbaitsgemainshaft 34	34
Arbeitsgemeinschaftsleiter Arbitsdinstfrer 35 Arbeitsmaiden 35	34
Argonaut Arbitration Camp 35	35
Ardennes operation 144-45	35
"Aryan paragraph" Aryan race 36 Army of Craiova 36 Army Ludov 36 Arndt, Walter 37	36

Arnhem airborne operation 1944 37

Artaman 37

Architecture in the Third Reich 38

"Atlantis" 41

Atlantic Charter 42

“Atlantic Wall” 42

Attila 42

Augsburg 43

"Ausland SD" 43

Auslandsdeutsche 43

Foreign organization 43

Aussenpolitices amt 43

"Auf Gut Deutsch"	43
"Aufbau ost" Auschwitz 43 Auschwitz process African Corps Aschaffenburg "B" -day 49 Babi Yar 49 Bavarian folk	43 44 44 47 party	49
Badoglio, Pietro 49 Bayreuth Festival		50

Backe, Herbert 50 Bamberg Party Conference

50

Banze, Ewald 51

"Barbarossa" 51

Barcorn, Erich Gerhard 55

Bart, Carl 55

Bartels, Adolf 56

Basserman, Albert 56

Baur, Hans 56

Bauhaus 56

Bach-Zelewski, Erich von 57

Begleytkommando SS57

Bezitzburgertum 57
Beck, Ludwig 57
Beck, Leo 58 Bekentniskirhe 58 Becker, Helmut 58 Beckman, Max 59 White Paper 59 “White rose" 59 Bello, Heinz 60 Belsen 60 Balcek 60 Boehm, Hermann 60 Böhmler, Alfred 61 Bendlerstrasse 61 Benes, Edward 61 Benn, Gottfried 62 Berger, Gottlob 62 Bergner, Elizabeth 63 Berghof 63 Bereitschaft 64 Behrends, Herman 64
Berlin operation 1945 Berlin Putsch 66	65
Bernadotte of Wisborg "Bernhard" 67 Berkhtesgaden 68 Best, Werner 68	67
“Befristete forbeigungshaftlinge" 69 Becher, Kurt 69 Bechstein, Carl 69
“Bildungsburgertum” Birkenau 69 Bismarck, Otto 69 "Bismarck" 69 Battle of England 70 Battle of the Atlantic 72 “Beefsteaks” 73	69
Blaskovitz, Johannes "Blue" 74 "Blickrig" 74	74

Blockart 75

Blomberg, Werner von 75

Blomberg-Frič, work 76

Blondie 78

"Blubo" 78 "Blumenkri" 78

Blumentritt, Günter78

Bluth und Boden 79

Bluetooth 79

Bluetooth 80

"Blutschnde" 80

"Blucher" 80

Boger, Wilhelm 80

Beumler, Alfred 80

Bock, Fedor von 80

Boxheim Papers	82
Bonhoeffer, Dietrich 82 Bonhoeffer, Klaus 83 Bormann, Martin 83 Born, Max 85 Marriage, Victor 86 Brand, Joel Jenier	86
Brandt. Villas 86 Brandt, Carl 87 Braun, Werner von 88 Brown, Eva 86 Brown, Otto 90 Brown, Otto 90 Braunau am Inn 90 "Browner laden" 90 Braunschweig * 90 Braunsteiner, Hermine	90
Brauchitsch, Walter von	91
Brouwer, Max 91 *Brennessel* 92 Brecht, Berthold 92 SS Brigadeführer 92 Broad, Percy 92 Brüning, Heinrich 92 Bund Deutscher Medel	93
Bund Oberland 93 Burchenschaft 93 Buchenwald 93 Bush, Adolf 94 Bush. Ernst von 94 Ber, Heinrich 94 Buhler, Philipp 94 “Burgerbrauckellr" 95 Bürkel, Josef 95 Wagner, Adolf 97 Wagner, Winifred 97 Wagner, Wilhelm Richard 97
Weisenborn, Günther 100 Weiss 1C Wallonia 100 Waldeck-Pearmont, Josiah	background
100 'Valkyrie * US Walkreis 101 Walter, Bruno 101 “Wandervogel* 101 Wannsee Conference	102
Vansittart, Robert Gilbert	103
Warlimont, Walter 103 Vartegau 103 “Waterfall * 103 Vakhdinst 103 Wachenfels 104 Wachmanchaft 104 "Watch on the Rhine " Yu4 Wegener, Paul 104 Weigel, Elena 104 Weil, Kurt 104 Weimar Republic	104
“Weisse Rose* 107 Weichs, Maximilian von	107
Weizsacker, Ernst von	107
Wales, Otto 108 “Veltanshaulihe shulung”	108
"Weltanshaung * 108 'Weltmacht oder nidergang *	108
Wenk, Walter 108 "Faith and Beauty" 110 "Werwolf" 110 Werewolf 110 Verkrais 111 Wehrmacht 111 Wehrmachtsbeefelschaber	112
Wehrmachtsfürungsam'	112
Wehrmachtsfürungsstaff	112
'Versailles Diktat*	112
Treaty of Versailles 1919	112
Werfel, Franz 113

Supreme High Command

Videman, Fritz 116

Widerstand 117

Wiesenthal, Simon 117

Wilhelmstrasse 117

"Wilde Camp" 117

“Wilfred* 117

Winkel 117

“Winterhilfe * 11V

Wirmer, Joseph 118

"Virus House" 118

Wisliceni, Dieter 118

Witzleben, Erwin von 118

SS119 troops

Wolf, Carl 122

"Wolfschantse" 122

"Wolfsshlucht" 122

"Eastern medal" 123

World Anti-Jewish League 123

Flash" 123

“Second Book' 123

Galen, Clemens August graph von 125

armed forces of Germany (OKW) FROM

"Weserubung" 114

Wessel, Hans Hore 114

Westdeutscher Beobachter 115

Westfeldzug* 115

Wefer, Walter 115

Galland, Adolf 125 Halder, Franz 125 Halder, conspiracy 126 Hamilton, Duke 127 Hanfstaengl, Ernst Franz Zedgwick 127
Gau 128 Gauger, Martin 130 Gauleiter 130 Hauptmann, Gerhard 130
SS Hauptsturmführer Gauführer 130 Gauštudentenfürung 130 Gakha, Emil 130	130
Goebbels, Paul Joseph	131
Goebbels, testament Heydrich, Reinhard 135	135
Gelldorf, Wolf Heinrich count von 137 "Gelb* 137 Gempp, Walter 138
Quartermaster General	138
Field Marshal General	138
General Council of the German NOMICA139 Henlein, Conrad 139 Genocide 140 Henryki, Siegfried 140 eorgѳ, Stefan 14S “Herbsstraise * 141 Poplar, Gunther 142	eco-
Göring, Hermann Wilhelm	142
Göring, Karin von Kantzow	148
Goering, Emma Sonnemann “Hercules* 148 Germanische-SS 148	148
German American Union	148
German-Italian Treaty 149	1939
German labor front Guernica 151 “Gerren Club” 151 Hess, Rudolf 151 Hess, flight 152 Gestapo 153	149
"Geheime Feldpolizei"	154
Teheime State Police*	154
"Geheimer cabinetsrat* Geschwader 155	155
Goerdeler, Carl Friedrich Gize, Teresa 155	155
Gisevius, Hans Bernd	155
Hilferding, Rudolf Himmler, Heinrich 156	156
Himmler-Kersten treaty Hindenburg, Oscar 158	158
Hindenburg, Paul von Hitler, Adolf 161	159
Hitler, political testament 180
Hitler's last will	182
Hitler-Stalin pact Hitler salute 183 “G itlerugend” 183	183

Main Directorate of Imperial Security

safety (RSHA) 185

Glagau, Otto 185

Glaser, Ernst 186

Gleiwitz Incident 186

Gleiden, Lilo 186

Globke, Hans 186

Globocnik, Odilo 187

Glucke, Richard 187

Glihshaltung 187

Gobineau, Joseph Arthur de 187

Gotterdemmerung 188

Gottschalk, Jovhim 188

Hoffmann, Heinrich 188

Graf, Herbert 188

Graf, Gѳrman 189

Graf, Ulrich 189

“Count Spee” 189

Greze, Irma 190

Greim, Robert Ritter von 190

"Grape" 191

Grenzpolitsay 191

Grimm, Hans 191

Gropius, Walter 192

Gross, Georg 193

Gross, Nikolaus 193

Gross Rosen 193

Grossdeutsche Volksgemeinschaft 193 Grossdeutscher Bund 194

Grossdeutsche Reich 194

Grun 194

G ründgens, G constitution 195

Hugenberg, Alfred 195

Guderian, Heinz Wilhelm 195

Gundolf, Friedrich 196

Günther, Hans 196

Gurtner, France 197

Daladier, Edouard 199

Dulles, Allen Welsh 199

Dalyuge, Kurt 200 'Dansig' 200

Darre, Richard-Walter 200

Dawes Plan 201

Dachau 201

Degenerative Art 202

Degrell, Leon 203

Delp, Alfred 204

Denazification 204

“Der Schöne Adolf' 204

Denitz, Carl 204

Dibelius, Friedrich Karl Otto 207

“Wild Camps" 207

Diels, Rudolf 207

Dimitrov, Georgy 208 Dynamo 208

Directive 21 208

Directive 39 209

Dirksen, Herbert von 209

Dietle, Edward 210

Dietmar, Kurt 210

Dietrich, Joseph 210

Dietrich, Marlene 211

Dietrich, Otto 211

"Volunteer Corps" 212

Non-aggression pact 1939 212

Dodd, William 214

Deutsch, Ernst 214

Deutsche ansiedlungsgѳsellschaft 214 "Deutschland, Deutschland über allee.

215

Doctors, process 215

Dollfuss, Engelbert215

Dolshtoss 217

Donany, Hans von 217

Dorpmüller, Julius 217 "Plates of Shame" 217 "Drang Nach Osten* 218 Drexler, Anton 218 “Dritte Reich* 219

Duisterberg, Theodor 219

Operation Dunkirk 1940 220

Düsseldorf speech 221

Jews in the Third Reich 223

Eshonek, Hans 225

Iron Cross 226

"Iron Fist" 226

"Iron Front" 227

“Yellow Plan” 227

"Living space" 227

'A task of historical importance' 229

"Law for the Protection of the People and the Reich"

229

“Western shaft" 230

Commandments of the members of the NSDAP 230

Hitler's Table Talk 231

Zaukel, Fritz 231

Sauerbruch, Ferdinand 232

Table 4. Military and party ranks 233 Zeekt. Hans von 234

Seyss-Inquart, Arthur 234

Zelbstschutz 235

Zeldte, Franz 235

'Sieg heil!' 236

"Siegfried, line" 236

Zip 237

Zipple book 237

Sitzkrieg 237

Ziherungsfervarte 237

Sonderkommandos 237

“Sonnenblum” 237

Sorge, Richard 237

IG Farbenindustri 239

fine arts in third

em reiche 239

“Illustrator beobachter' 241

Ilona 241

Imperial Chamber of Cinematography 241

Imperial Chamber of Culture 242

Imperial Labor Service 242

Imperial Union of Civil Servants 242

Imperial Union of Teachers 242

Imperial Air Ministry 243

Imperial labor competition 243

"Industrial Club" 243

July conspiracy 1944 243

Jodl, Alfred 246

Yorck von Wartenburg, Peter 247

Jost, Heinz Maria Karl 247

Jost, Hans 247

Kaltenbrunner, Ernst 249 "Canada" 250

Canaris, Friedrich Wilhelm 250

Kapp Putsch 251

Carr, Gustav von 252

Cassirer, Ernst 252

Keitel, Wilhelm 253

Keutner, Helmut 254

Kempka, Erich 254

Königsberg speech 255

Kepler, Wilhelm 255

Kerrl, Hans 255

Kersten, Felix 255

Kesselring, Albert 255

Cinematography in the Third Reich 256

Kip, Otto Karl 258

Kirdorf, Emil 258

Kleist, Paul Ludwig Ewald von 258

Kluge, Gunther Hans von 259

Knauf, Erich 260

Knockplegen 260

“When the SS and SA march” 260

Chicken, Oscar 260

Koldic 260

Kolbe, Maximilian 260

Kolwitz, Kete 260

"Commissar Erlas" 261

"Committee of Seven" 261

"Committee of Three" 261

Communist Party of Germany

261

Condor 261

Concordat 1933 262

“Canned food” 262

Conti, Leonardo 262

Concentration camps 263

Cordt, Erich 265

“Brown house" 265

Kortner, Fritz 265

Koch, Erich 265

Chrysleiter 265

Kramer, Joseph 265

“Red Chapel" 266

Kraus, Clemens 266

Kreisau, group 266

"Peasant Union" 266

Kripo 266

Christian, Gerda 267

Krozig, Lutz Schwerin von 267

Krupp von Bohlen, Gustav 267

Kubitschek, August 267

Laval, Pierre 269

"Death Camps" 270

Laketel 270

Lammers, Hans Heinrich 270

Langben, Carl 270

Langben, Julius 271

Landbund 271

Landesinspector 271

Landrat 271

Landsberg271

Landtag 271 “Lahsfang” 272

"Lebensborn" 272

Lebensraum 272

Leber, Julius 273

Leeb, Wilhelm Joseph Franz von 274

Leere, Johann von 276

Lei. Robert 276

Leibwache 277

Leibholz, Gerhard 277

"Leibschgandart SS Adolf Hitler" 277

Leichenkommando 278

Leishner, Wilhelm 278

Leonard, Philippe von278

Lenya, Lotta 278

Letterhouse, Bernhard 279

Liebenfels, Jörg Lanz von 279

Lieberman, Max 280

Lidice 280

"Lila" 280

"Lily Marlene" 281

Liszt, Wilhelm 281

Literature in the Third Reich 281

Lichtenburg, Bernard 283

Locarno Treaties 1925 283

Lorenz, Heinz 284

Lorenz, Konrad 284

Lutze, Victor 284

Lubbe. Marinus van der 284

Luger, Kvrl 284

Ludwig, Emil 285

Ludendorff, Erich 285

Luftwaffe 286

Lufthansa 289

Luftkrais 289

Luftflot 289

Luftsportportband 289

"Madagascar" 291

"Maginot, line" 291

Maidanek 292

Mayer, Helena 292

Main Kampf 293

Meitner, Lise 297

Max Heiliger, score 297

Mann, Heinrich 297

Mann, Golo 298

Mann, Klaus 298

Mann. Thomas 298

Mannerheim, Carl Gustav Emil

298

“Mannerheim line" 298

Mannesman 299

Manteuffel, Hasso von 300

Manheim, Carl 300

Manstein, Erich von ZOi

Marburg speech 301

Marita 302

Marcel, Hans-Joachim		302
Maroon, Arthur	303
Marzgefallene	303
"Marzfeilkhin"	303
Mauthausen	303
"Machtergreifung"	304
MG-42 304
Meinecke, Friedrich	304
Meisner, Otto	305
Meitner, Lise	305
Mengele, Josef	305
Beaker 306
Me-109 306
Me-110 306
Me-262 306

Messerschmitt, Willy 309

Meshugism 309

Möller van den Broek, Arthur 309

Mölders, Werner 310

“Dead Head” 310

Milch, Erhard 310

"World domination or collapse" 311

Misbacher Anzeiger	311
"Missmacher und Criticaster"	312
Mittwohsgesell schaft “Mishlinge" 312 Model, Walter 312	312
Moltke, Helmut Graf von Monte, Hilda 314 "Morgentau plan" 314 Morelli, Theodore 314 Maurice, Emile 315 "Sea Lion" 315 "Darkness and Fog" 316	313
Music in the Third Reich	316
Mussert, Anton Adrian Mussolini, Benito 318 Muchov, Reinhold 320 Flies, plan 320 "Martyrs" 320 Müller, Heinrich 321 Müller, Joseph 322 Müller, Ludwig 322	317

Müller, Friedrich Max 323

Munich process 324

Munich Putsch 325 Munich Agreement 1938 325

Nadolny, Rudolf August 329

Napolas 329

People's Tribunal 329

Naujoks, Alfred Hellmuth 330 “Hermann Goering Research Institute” 331

"National Socialist People's Charity" 331

National Socialist German Workers' Party 331

National Socialist Student League of Germany 336

"National Socialist Monthly" 336

National Socialist Motorized Corps 337

National Socialist People's Union 337

National Socialist Workers Union 337

National Socialist Association of German Physicians 337

National Socialist Union of Teachers 337

National Socialist Union of Lawyers 337

National Labor Day 337

National Committee "Free Germany"337

National Redoubt 337

Nazi holidays 337

Nebe, Arthur 339

Neurat, Constantine von 339

German National People's Party 340 Niemoller, Martin 340 Novotny, Walter 341 "New Order" 341

Neuengamme 341	Potemp case 378		Saar 419
Nolde, Emil 342	Potsdam Conference 1945 Salomon, Ernst von 420
"Nordlicht" 342	378		Swastika 420
"Night of the Long Knives"	342 Potsdam Putsch 378		SD 420
“Night of broken windows”	346 Press in the Third Reich		379 “Sitting War” 421
"November Criminals"	346 Prien, Günther 380		“Strength in Joy" 421
NS Briefe 346	Prinz-Albrechtstrasse		381 Symbols of the Third Reich 421
NSDocentenbund 347	Prinz-Regentenstrasse		381 Skorzeny, Otto 427
NS-Frauenschaft 347	Fuhrer principle 381		Investigation and Arbitration Committee
NS-Hilfskasse 347	Propaganda in the Third Reich		382 428
Nuremberg citizenship laws Protectorate 385			"Reich Labor Service" 428
and race 347	Prussen, August Wilhelm Heinrich Sobibor 428
Nuremberg Party Congresses Günther Prinz von 385			Reich Defense Council 428
348	Pfarrenbund 385		Soviet-German pact
Nuremberg Trials	348 Care 385		fall 428
Rob 351	“The Fifth Column” 385		“The estate of the breadwinners of the Reich” 428
Oberbeefelshaber 351	Ravensbrück 387		Wrestling Union 429
Oberbefelschaber der Luftwaffe Broadcasting in the Third Reich 387 Union for the Struggle for German Culture
351	Rall, Günther 388		429
Oberbefelschaber des heeres	351 Racial doctrine 389		Union of German Girls 429
Oberg, Karl 351	Racial pollution392		Statute of limitations 430
Obergruppe 352	Racial Studies		392 SS 430
SS Obergruppenführer	352 Rasse- und zedlungshauptamt		393 "Steel Pact" 432
Obersalzberg 352	Rastenburg meeting		393 "Steel helmet" 433
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht	352 Rattenhuber, Hans 394		Sudeten German Party 434
Oberkommando der Luftwaffe352 Raubal, Geli 394			Sudetenland 434
Obercommando des Heeres	352 Rauschning, Hermann 394		“Twilight of the Gods" 434
Oberstgruppenführer SS	352 Reventlov, Ernst 395		“Т-4" 437
Oberster Befelschaber der Wehrmacht “Regenbogen” 395			Thadden, Adolf von 437
352	Reder, Erich 395		Tadden, Elizabeth von 437
Oberster SA-Führer 352	Rednershule 397		"Secret office" 438
Oberstes Partiger	352 Rhine demilitarized		Typhoon Zone 438
Oberforena, memorandum	352 397		Tannenberg 438
Oberführer SS 353	Reinhardt, Max 397		Tannenberg 438
Obersturmbannführer SS	353 Reinhardt, Fritz 398		Tannenberg Union 439
Obersturmführer SS353	Reuters-SS 398		Tatcries 439
Education in the Third Reich	353 Reich, Hannah 398		Tauber, Richard 440
"ODESSA" 356	Reichwein, Adolf 398		Theater in the Third Reich 440
"Final Solution"	356 Reichenau, Walter von		399 Taylor, Alan John Percival 441
Olendorf, Otto 357	Reichsarbaitsdinst 399		Taylor, Telford 442
Olympic Games 1936	358 Reichsbank 399		Telman, Ernst 442
Olbricht, Friedrich 360	“Reichsbanner schwarz-rot-gold		”400 Terboven, Joseph 443
“Orde dinst” 360	Reichswehr 400		Terezienstadt 444
Ordensburg 360	"Reichswerke Hermann Göring"		400 Tillich, Paul 444
Ordnertruppe 361	Reichskommissariat for the East-Thingspilstatten 444
Ordnungspolizei 361	territories 400		Tirach, Otto Georg 445
Ortsgruppe 361	Reich Commissariat for Strengthening Thyssen Fritz 445
“Weapon of Vengeance” 361	German statehood 401 Todt "Fritz 447
Ossitzky, Carl von 362	Reichsleiter 401		Todta, organization 447
Ostarbeiters 362	Reichsmark 401		Toller, Ernst 447
Oster, Hans 363	Reichsmarschall 401		Thomas, George 448
Ostindustri Gmbh 363	Reichspropagandaamt 401		Thompson, Dorothy 449
Ostmark 363	Reichstag, arson 402		Torgau 449
“Otto” 363	Reichstrunkenbold 403		Torgler, Ernst 449
Otto, Program 363	Reichsfilm camera 403		Tottenburg 449
Pabst, Georg Wilhelm	365 Reichsführer SS 403		Totenbuch 449
Pavelic, Ante 365	Reichsführerschule 403		Totenfogel 450
Three Power Pact 1940	365 Reichsportbund 403		Treblinka 450
Pangermanism 365	Reichschriftumskammer		403 Treviranus, Gottfried 450
Pan-German Union 366	Reichsstadthalter 404		Trevor-Roper, Hugh Redwald 450
"Panther" 366	Reichstudentwerk 404		"Troykhander" 450
Papen, Franz von 367	In the Reichstag 404		"Troykhander der arbayt" 450
Papenburg 367	Reichsugendamt 404		Tresckow, Henning von 450
Partheigenosse 368	Religion in the Third Reich		404 Third Reich 451
Partheiger 368	Rom, Ernst 406		"Triumph loves" 452
Party page 368	Remagen Bridge 408		Troost, Paul Ludwig 455
Pastor's Union 368	Remarque, Erich Maria 408		Trot tsu Soltz, Adam von 456
Paulus, Friedrich Wilhelm von Renn, Ludaig 408			Thule Society 456
368	Ribbentrop, Joachim von		408 "Thousand Year Reich" 457
Pölzl, Clara 369	“Ribbentrop Bureau”410		“Stab in the back” 459
Peenemuende 369	“Rome-Berlin Axis” 410		Udet, Ernst 460
Hitler's first cabinet	369 Ritter, Gerhard 410		Universities in the Third Reich 461
Pétain, Henri Philippe 370	Riefenstahl, Leni 411		Undermen 463
"Beer putsch" 1923 371	Richthofen, Wolfram von		412 SS-Unterscharführer 463
Pius XI 373	Rosenberg, Alfred 412		Untersturmführer SS 463
Pius XII 373	Rommel, Erwin 413		USHLA 463
Pimpf 374	Rossbach, group 415		Falkenhausen, Alexander von 465
Piscator, Erwin 374	“Rote Chapel” 415		Falshirmtruppen 465
Planck, Erwin 375	Rotfrontkempferbund		415 Faulhaber. Michael 465
Plotzensee 375	RSHA 415		Fegelein, Hermann 467
Submarine fleet in the Third Reich Rudel, Hans-Ulrich 415			Feder, Gottfried 467
375	Rundstedt, Gerd von 416		Feindherer 470
Reichstag fire 377	Rust, Bernhard 416		"Felix" 470
Politiche beretshaften	377 Knight's Cross 417		Felgiebel, Erich 470
Paul, Osnald 377	SA 419		Feldherrnhalle 470
Popitz, Johannes 378	“SA-leaderbook” 419		Feljägerkorps 470
"Völkischer Beobachter"	470	Zeitzler, Kurt 505		Stathalter 533
Femegerichte 472 Flick Friedrich 472		Zellenleiter 506 Central Political Commission		State Police 533 Stauffenberg, Klaus Schenck von
Flossenbürg 473 'Fockewulf 190' 473 Volkmann, Helmut 473 Volkswagen 475 Volksgemeinschaft 475 Volksdeutsche 475 "Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle"	475	506 "Zeppelin" 506 Ziegenberg 506 Cyclone-B 506 Zinsknechtšaft 507 “Citadel'' 508 Cossen 509		533 Stöcker, Adolf 535 Shtennes, rebellion 536 Stines, Hugo 536 Stiff, Helmut 536 Schreicher, Julius 537 Strassenzellen 538
Volkslist 475 Volksschedlinge 476 Volkssturm 476 Forster. Albert 476 Frank, Anna 477 Frank Hans 477 Frankfurt Process	479	Zossen Putsch 509 Cubringer 509 Zuckmeier, Carl 509 Chamberlain, Neville 511 Chamberlain, Houston Stewart 511 Black Wednesday” 514 Black Shirts ”514		Strasser, Gregor 538 Strasser.O'go 539 Stresemann Gustav 540 Strifendinst 540 Strochkopf 541 Stroop, Jurgen 541 "Student" 541
women 479 Freiburg group	479	"Black Order" 514 'Black Reichswehr' 514		“Thing” 541 Stumpfegi man, Ludwig 541
Freideburg, Hans Georg von	479	Black Front 514		Storm 541
Freisler, Roland 481 Frick, Wilhelm 481 Friche, Hans 482 Fritsch, Werner von 484 Fromm Friedrich 484 Frontbann ” 485 Frontlelebis 485 Frühling Zrwachen 485 Fuhrer 485 Fuhrer, cult 486 Führerbunker 488 Fuhrerkorpus 489 Furtwängler, Wilhelm	489	Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer 514 Four Year Plan 515 Shamil 517 Charlemagne 517 Mine, Hjalmar 517 Schwanenfeld Ulrich-Wilhelm Schwerin background 518 Schwartz 518 Schwartz, Franz 518 Schwarze Corps 518 Schweinfurt raids 518 Schwerin von Krosig. Lutz Graf		Sturmbann 541 Stulpnagel. Carl Heinrich von 541 Sturmer ” 542 Schulenburg, Count Werner von der 543 “Schulung” 543 “Shupo” 543 Schuschnigg, Kurt von 543 Ebert, Friedrich 545 Euthanasia program 545 “Edelweiss" 546 Eicke, Theodor 546
Hackenkreutz 491 Hammerstein, Kurt von	491	519 Schellenberg Walter 519		Eichmann, Adolf [Karl] 548 Eckart, Dietrich 549
Hanke, Karl 491 Harnack, Ernst von 491 Harnier, Adolf von 492 “Labor Paper 492 Hartmann, Erich 492 Hassel, Ulrich 493 Haushofer, Albrecht 493 Haushofer Karl 493 Keisinger, Adolf 495 Heimwehr 495 Haynes, Edmund 495 Heinkel, Ernst 495 Höss, Rudolf Franz	496	Shemann, Ludwig 520 Schnerner, Ferdinand 520 Schicklgruber, Alois 521 Schirach Baldur von 521 Shearer, William 522 Schlageter Albert Leo 522 Schleicher Kurt von 522 Schleicher Rudiger 523 Schmelipg, Max 523 Schmidt, Paul 324 Schmidt, Laul Karl 525 Schmitt, Carl 525 Schmidt, Kurt 525		Alsace, Fritz 550 Elser, Johann Georg 550 Eltz Rüenach, Paul von 550 Epp, Ritter von 550 Erdman, Lothar 551 Ernst, Carl 551 Erhardt, Germany 551 Esser German 552 Ehera, publishing house 553 Jugendherbergen 555 Jugendshutzkammer 555 "Yudas-yudeh" 555 Judenrat 555
Hilfswerk mutter und kind	496	Schmundt, Rudolf 525		Jung, plan 555
Hilfsvillige 496 Hilfsgemainshaft auf gegenzaitii ~		Scholl, Hans 525 Scholztz Klink, Gertrude 526		Jungdoicher, Order 556 Junge, Gertrude 556
return 496 Hilfskasse 497 Hindemith, Paul 497 Hirt, August 497 Holocaust 498 Josebach, Friedrich 500 Hossbach, protocol 501 Hossbach meeting	501	Span Otmar 526 Spandau 526 Speer, Albert 527 Speidel, Hans 529 Plywood Hugo 529 "Spieser" 531 “Sportpalast” 531 Schroeder Kurt von 531		Junger, Ernst 556 Jungfolk 556 Jungstalhelm 556 Junkers-87 557 Junkerschule 557 Justice in the Third Reich 557 "Jagdbomber" 561 Jagdgeschwader 561
“Crystal Night” 502 Huber, Kurt 502 Hugenberg Alfred 502 Hundertivaften 503 Huh, Ricard 503		Staffshav 532 Stalag 532 Standards 532 At the Standeriche 532 Staremberg, Ernst Rüdiger 532		“Jagdferbende” 561 Jagdfliegerführer 561 Jan, Erich 561 Jannings, Emil 561 Chronology of the Third Reich 562
"C" plan 505 Zweig, Arnold 505 Zweig. Stephen 505		Stark, Jonathan 533 Stark, Johannes 533		Accepted abbreviations 574 Bibliography 577

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