A. Hitler...1 İngilizce

I KLOPEDIA Third Reich

“Who is like the beast, and who can fight him?” (Revelation of John, Ch. 13; 4)

ENCYCLOPEDIA

pirspi'sao Reich

LOCKID-MYTH

Moscow 1996

BBK 92

Э687

Compiled by:

Foreword, general edition, selection of illustrations, additions:

Sergey Voropaev

Albert Egazarov

The Third Reich, which left such a noticeable mark on the history of the 20th century, paradoxically, lasted only 12 years, from 1933 to 1945. in the country that gave the world Luther, Goethe, classical philosophy, Nietzsche, Planck, Einstein. In this insignificant period, even for one generation, Germany underwent a monstrous metamorphosis, in which the hypothetical “beast”, conceived in the depths of the philosophies of Fichte and Nietzsche, the music of Wagner, stepped onto the fields of Europe, bringing death and destruction.

They tried to explain the phenomenon of Nazism in different ways: from painfully familiar socio-historical causes generated by the general crisis of capitalism, to the “St. This "Encyclopedia" is designed to restore the balance - the facts collected in it, the biographies of the leaders of Nazism, rich illustrative material allow us to finally consider the "beast from the abyss", the very one over which the Great Victory was won half a century ago.

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© Locked, 1996

© Mif, 1996

Foreword

Twelve Years of the Thousand Year Reich

The decimal number system, generated, as they say, not by the most significant phenomenon in evolution, namely, by five fingers on each hand of the only bearer of the mind of the planet Earth, was not satisfied with triumph in practical calculations alone and for some time now, having found adherents for itself, then in the face Pythagoreans, then among the worshipers of the sacred alphabets, began to claim knowledge of the entire universe, visible and invisible. And although natural history owed nothing to the number ten, the human universe was held hostage by the circle and wand, which produced the arithmetic bastard of eschatology, millenarianism.

The highly conventional Christian chronology, which was three years late, to celebrate the Savior's coming into this world, has already caused quite a stir at the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennium and, I think, will lead to no less at the end of the 2nd . And if the Western world at the end of the 10th century (leaving aside those who are indifferent to the linear history of the empire of the East) was still a weak child to push the world to a catastrophe, then the civilized avant-garde of the 20th century has considerable possibilities in order to transfer its expectations from the mental sphere to the material one. Whether this violent teenager will grow up to adulthood (XXX century) and what kind of clubs he will then swing - we will not guess - our task is to note the unfading power of charm with round numbers.

And if we continue to develop the enchantment motif, then it will lead us to the power of the simple and majestic, of which the power of a series of zeros is a special case.

The motives of simplicity and grandeur, power and scope, purity and order, not so long ago combined in one civilized European country into a kind of Wagnerian opera, which in 1933 could be called "OeіlzsyapsІ dzher aiiez", and in 1945 - "Sbіііеrсіattehypd" or, in Russian, “Twilight of the Gods”.

In these twelve years, a certain state-mythical formation fit in, replacing, like wild meat, all the tissues of Weimar Germany, called the Third Reich and designed for a thousand-year existence. However, the historical bed for the Reich turned out to be Procrustean, and the thousand-year kingdom of the “new order” was shortened by as much as 988 years.

But what is surprising is that shortening was postulated from the very beginning, and the time of the Third Reich, in contrast to, say, the infinitive of the “bright future” of communist Russia, was strictly 

limited to the same magic number with three zeros.

Could the future cast a gloomy shadow of the death of the gods, and with them the world, on the infancy of the Third Empire 9 I think so, but in a completely paradoxical way - this shadow became an imaginary line of fate, and Germany, led by the Fuhrer, rushed to fight the whole world like Homeric Achilles who knew his destiny. But that was, by European standards, the golden age, when the oracles did not lie, and another thing is the twentieth, iron. And iron, as you know, rusts. Why, in this case, does not corrosion spread to the sky? It turns out that the gods did not die - they just rusted.

So, twelve years of the thousand-year Reich.1933-1945.

From the fire in the Reichstag to the world fire.

Only twelve years, and now the world wolf Fenrir, who came out from somewhere in the land of the Vanir, with a sickle-shaped tooth, pierces Wotan's throat, and Thor's stolen hammer is already forging a new ribbon of fate.

What's this? Betrayal of the highest patrons or... does history have its own number system?

So what was the Third Reich if it existed not only in name, but also in time and space? There was a state, it was called Germany, and suddenly — bam * — the Third Reich, just a distant kingdom of some kind from Slavic mythology. Fairy land of the Aryans? Rising from the mythological depths of Atlantis? Or a great experiment carried out successfully by secret societies? Or maybe for the time being a prelude, a trial stone thrown into the well-groomed garden of democracy? If the latter is true even by a tenth of a percent, then it becomes clear that the number of opuses devoted to an insignificant time period in the history of one European country. And, perhaps, not a single person, whose existence has been historically proven, has not been honored with so many works as Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Third Reich.

In the very name “Third Reich”, which is firmly rooted both in the minds of the masses and in the works of researchers, a certain frightening cosmism is already lurking. Just a kingdom (empire). Third. Millennial. And all this, despite the abbreviation “NATSI” shimmering with all shades and uses, which completed its semantic acrobatics with an abusive nickname. But if it's just a kingdom, then perhaps the attempt to establish it was not the last. Oh, how you want to sigh wearily here and stretch your lips in a wise smile: they say that the peoples will not step on this rake again. The anchor of democratic gains will not allow either to take off into the “bright future” or to plunge into the whirlpool of the swastika. Democracy in its current form is declared the final phase of the development of society. It seems that we have already heard about the final phase somewhere. And where is it now - the phase ?

Purely theoretically, the finality of this or that social order will never become a theorem. This is just a postulate, but, unlike the postulates of Euclid, it does not have creative extrapolations, but is intended only to legitimize the existing, directly related to the comfort of philosophizing apologists. History, however, is not a sofa. And it's a pity... So, in the sphere of those postulates on which the newly-minted fighters for democracy rely, totalitarian regimes look something like a locomotive firebox of the locomotive of history, into which passengers climb fats, preferring the hellish flame of the boiler to the comfort of sleeping cars. The machinists in this presentation are entirely madmen and scoundrels. As a result, the travesty of the “beast from the abyss” reduces him to a vicious, biting, but generally miniature and, most importantly, unmistakable ferret. The rest is a matter of technique: not to let the little beast fall to the nipples of the masses,

Oh, if only that were an exaggeration! Alas. Let's remember Hitler - a demoniac type with a brush of a mustache, splashing with saliva, with his arms crossed - where "it will be waist-deep" - this is from the visual range. Or: a failed artist, a ranting ignorant, paranoid and impotent, an upstart corporal with an awkward surname Schicklgruber - from the verbal. Here you have the alarm of the intelligentsia - ringing copper. Like a shaman chasing away evil spirits from the sick bed, the intelligentsia, rattling the tambourine, forgets that this instrument only awakens top and bottom from hibernation and makes holes in the boundaries that separate the worlds, and the outcome of the ever-renewable battle depends on the strength of the one who took the tambourine and to a large extent— from the sickest. Weak - silence.

Believing that the next devil will definitely emerge in the form of a goat-like creature with a sulfuric burp, you can see how another savior will appear in the hole made, shining with beauty, overcome the clownish adversary and, under enthusiastic aspirations, lead the people to the Morning Star lit ahead of time.

Does history give lessons to the future, does it teach to recognize the rake at the crossroads of time, is there a limit to the variety of disguises of the forces of darkness, and even if there is one, will there be enough reason to believe; and courage to take off the mask. Or will we glide from time to time on Annushka's oil with Berlioz, wandering around psychiatric hospitals as homeless Ivans, opening up our fears on the white coats of affectionate soul doctors? It is hardly possible to say anything comforting here ... We will. History, including the most recent times, leaves us no chance to hear a warning, and the masses, on whose voice the historical choice depends, can at any moment raise the banner of a new prophet, and then groan and groan because of what is in the word “prophet” turned out to be one letter less. And therefore, it is better for the “worried” and noisy intelligentsia to forget that it is the conscience of the people, albeit tarnished, and one simple but important thought, the mass (zіs!) cannot be warned or reasoned with - it can only be operated with less or more success. Which, in fact, is done in any political campaign under the guise of a fig leaf of care and mentoring.

In mathematics, there is the concept of an operator and an operand. The operator is the who, and the operand is the whom or by whom. I will leave aside the question of operators: from priests, magicians, heroes and messiahs through emperors, tsars, Fuhrers, duces and “leaders” to world conspiracies and the OSCE. You can't call an ascending row. Well, to Caesar - Caesar's, to the operator - operand. Therefore, from tribes, peoples and nations, we, through democracy, come to the masses and further - to the pinnacle of social abstraction - the electorate. From centuries-old traditions, deep rituals - to ballot boxes, from the hope of being heard - to the ashes of rustling ballots. For all that, democracy can be the power of the people - but only where there is power, the people. The electorate is obliged to be content with the choice between deceit and lies.

The curse of transitional times is that the people no longer exist, but the electorate still; and the cauldron of history is bursting with mass, the most reactive component in the process of social transmutation. This mass, warmed up by the fire of suffering and resentment, becomes extremely receptive to the new logos and ambivalent to its sign. Then a tiny seed, say, in the form of a corporal with a piercing look and oblique bangs, in this cauldron grows to a gigantic figure of a leader, who is called upon to gallop time or reverse its course: there is only one goal - the creation (reconstruction) of a people according to the models of a hypothetical bright future or mythical of the past.

The demiurge of the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler, chooses the ancient German epic, Wagner operas, racial theories of Gobineau, Chamberlain, Liebenfels and Madame Blavatsky as the instrument of the new creation; the carnival practice of Bolshevik Russia and the order principle of organizing the party elite. Even such a distant historical and geographical phenomenon as the Horde found its place in the Nazi hierarchy of power. Let us recall one more demiurge who forged in the Gulag forges “a man of a new type”. From the frequent comparison of the two leaders, it is already dazzling, but in their political portraits drawn by authorized researchers, all the differences have been reduced to the shape of the mustache, the main thing

— forgotten. The Hitler phenomenon is the result of the democratic choice of the masses, while Stalin's leadership is the result of internal party struggle.

In the era of the formation of the Nazi state, Hitler's supremacy was absolute, the "night of long knives" cannot be seen as the elimination of competitors in the struggle for power. Rem and his stormtroopers interfered not with the Fuhrer, but with the SS, Himmler personally and the high military command. Hitler preferred the professionalism and discipline of a 100,000-strong Reichswehr to a three-million-strong gang of storm troopers, an anarchist farmstead of the SA - the strict architecture of the SS.

As for Stalin, in the person of the old Bolsheviks, the father of the peoples destroyed the fundamental illegitimacy of the Bolshevik government, witnesses of its far from heroic origin. A myth does not and cannot have living eyewitnesses, it does not need apologists, let alone critics. The myth does not need proof, it is simply lived in.

In contrast to the Bolshevik myth of a bright future with universal equality, patronized by a leader who combined the features of a solar deity and a mystical forefather, the myth of National Socialism is reversed - to the heroic past of the Aryans - and fundamentally defends the idea of ​​inequality with a pronounced superiority of the Nordic race and, above all , Germans. Note that the dominance of the Nordic superman is not established, but restored, while the “blond beast” itself is distilled in the process of biological crossing of individuals that have retained Aryan genes in their chromosomes. The Nazi version of the “common cause” extracted the perfect ancestor not from the graves, but from the blood. Himmler, chief of the SS, due to his farming habits, brought out the superman like a new breed of cattle. To this end, the top leadership of the SS controlled all the marriages of its members, even the birth of bastards was encouraged, of course, from exemplary males of the “black order”. There is another difference in the methods of the two dictators: any material for a “new type of man” was suitable for Stalin - all hope was placed on reforging. And man, we note, was not the last link in the descent of the principle of "reforging": Lysenko brought the methods of education to the level of plants, and it is strange that there was no metallurgist who would begin to "educate" metals. Hitler was more scrupulous in choosing the source material, while the expansion did not go horizontally, as in Soviet Russia (the domination of the proletariat of all countries), but vertically (all Aryans are a class of masters). Thus, social contradictions, at least in theory, were removed by a common goal for all social strata - the establishment (restoration) of German domination. So what did Hitler want - Germany's world domination? Outwardly, it seems to be. If not for one phrase he said to Speer on the verge of disaster: “If the war is not saved, the people must also die. (...) For the people turned out to be weak, and the future belongs exclusively to the eastern people, as the stronger one.” It turns out that Germany at the time of the flowering of nationalism was beautiful, not far from the only bride for the upcoming mystical wedding of the nation and the leader. Not Germany, not personal power and the new order, but the Superman - the fruit of this marriage - that's the alpha of Hitler's aspirations. The war, the extermination of the "lower races", the monstrous experiments on the prisoners of concentration camps - alas, not the mental pathology of the leader, his relatives and the people infected by them, but something like a banal sanitation of the living space for the new superhumans. Cruelty as a routine, as a daily ritual of shaving and washing, became the very Rubicon that the judges of Nuremberg did not dare to step over. And although the criminals were punished, the Court of Nations did not achieve its main goal: evil did not recognize itself as such, and its arbiters climbed into the noose with innocent eyes.

Here you can put a period or a question mark, I leave the choice to the reader, and if he steps over the oxymoron of "evil with innocent eyes", we can assume that all of the above made some sense.

So, before you, the reader, is an encyclopedia of the Third Reich. And encyclopedias, as you know, operate with facts. Questions, hypotheses and assumptions are inappropriate in them, therefore you will not find any motives, driving forces, sources and components here. That part of the problem of the genesis of the Third Reich, its metaphysics and mysticism, which, in my opinion, remains relevant at the present time, I tried to identify in this preface to the best of my ability and place. The passion of the Fuhrer and his inner circle in the occult sciences, the rites and rituals of the SS, the true meaning of the Ahnenerbe research in this Encyclopedia are not properly covered. But this can hardly be considered a disadvantage for a one-volume edition: the occult and the Reich is such a vast topic that it requires no less volume and the utmost intelligibility of the compiler. Secret orders, as you know, avoid documents, therefore, researchers of the esoteric line in the history of the Third Reich often fill them with conjectures, hypotheses and analogies. We know (and this is in the Encyclopedia!) that Hitlerbecamea vegetarian in the late 1920s, that he was familiar with Haushofer and his geopolitics; According to G. Rauschning, his statements about the coming superman, about the creation of an organization similar to secret orders with carefully developed rituals and degrees of initiation are known. You can watch documentary footage about the embryo of the SS state, Wewelsburg Castle, note the non-randomness of the round table, twelve chairs around it, the presence of a hall of heroes and a sanctuary with an altar unequivocally intended for the Grail. Every detail of the interior carried a symbolic meaning, even the choice of material for the upholstery of the walls - oak - suggests a cult purpose of the castle. Ridiculous, sometimes naive and, if not for the enormity of using living people as guinea pigs, somewhere funny experiments conducted by the Ahnenerbe in concentration camps, went against the science of the 20th century, but more or less agreed with the occult teaching about the energy levels of a person and about invisible channels for transmitting mysterious fields. The reader, who does not imagine the existence of the Third Reich without an occult foundation, can find confirmation of his guesses in the guesses of Povel and Bergier, set out by them in one of the chapters of the “Morning of the Magicians”, as well as in the accessible and, which pleases, sustained work of Francis King “Satan and swastika”, highly recommended by the author of this preface. Of the incredible number of works devoted to the phenomenon of Nazism, the bibliography for this edition lists those that are closest to the original source. Therefore, it is not surprising that the list of authentic works of the Nazis, although it will not be easy to get them, I warn you. on the other hand, they were more or less consistent with the occult teaching about the energy levels of a person and about invisible channels for the transmission of mysterious fields. The reader, who does not imagine the existence of the Third Reich without an occult foundation, can find confirmation of his guesses in the guesses of Povel and Bergier, set out by them in one of the chapters of the “Morning of the Magicians”, as well as in the accessible and, which pleases, sustained work of Francis King “Satan and swastika”, highly recommended by the author of this preface. Of the incredible number of works devoted to the phenomenon of Nazism, the bibliography for this edition lists those that are closest to the original source. Therefore, it is not surprising that the list of authentic works of the Nazis, although it will not be easy to get them, I warn you. on the other hand, they were more or less consistent with the occult teaching about the energy levels of a person and about invisible channels for the transmission of mysterious fields. The reader, who does not imagine the existence of the Third Reich without an occult foundation, can find confirmation of his guesses in the guesses of Povel and Bergier, set out by them in one of the chapters of the “Morning of the Magicians”, as well as in the accessible and, which pleases, sustained work of Francis King “Satan and swastika”, highly recommended by the author of this preface. Of the incredible number of works devoted to the phenomenon of Nazism, the bibliography for this edition lists those that are closest to the original source. Therefore, it is not surprising that the list of authentic works of the Nazis, although it will not be easy to get them, I warn you. who does not imagine the existence of the Third Reich without an occult foundation, can find confirmation of his guesses in the guesses of Povel and Bergier, set out by them in one of the chapters of “Morning of the Magicians”, as well as in the accessible and, which pleases, sustained work of Francis King “Satan and the Swastika” strongly recommended by the author of this preface. Of the incredible number of works devoted to the phenomenon of Nazism, the bibliography for this edition lists those that are closest to the original source. Therefore, it is not surprising that the list of authentic works of the Nazis, although getting them, I warn you, will not be easy. who does not imagine the existence of the Third Reich without an occult foundation, can find confirmation of his guesses in the guesses of Povel and Bergier, set out by them in one of the chapters of “Morning of the Magicians”, as well as in the accessible and, which pleases, sustained work of Francis King “Satan and the Swastika” strongly recommended by the author of this preface. Of the incredible number of works devoted to the phenomenon of Nazism, the bibliography for this edition lists those that are closest to the original source. Therefore, it is not surprising that the list of authentic works of the Nazis, although getting them, I warn you, will not be easy. highly recommended by the author of this preface. Of the incredible number of works devoted to the phenomenon of Nazism, the bibliography for this edition lists those that are closest to the original source. Therefore, it is not surprising that the list of authentic works of the Nazis, although getting them, I warn you, will not be easy. highly recommended by the author of this preface. Of the incredible number of works devoted to the phenomenon of Nazism, the bibliography for this edition lists those that are closest to the original source. Therefore, it is not surprising that the list of authentic works of the Nazis, although getting them, I warn you, will not be easy.

The attentive reader will notice that the East-West balance in this Encyclopedia is somewhat skewed towards the West, especially in articles related to World War II. The compiler in his work relied mainly on English-language sources, and I think that in general this turned out to be useful for the Encyclopedia. While the outstanding role of the Soviet people in the victory over fascism is nowhere disputed, we have the opportunity to get acquainted with the war in Africa, the Balkans and Western Europe.

In conclusion, it remains for me to add that the breadth and proportion of the material presented in the Encyclopedia: from references to the little-known housewife Lilo Gleiden, who was executed by the Nazis, and the beautiful Irma Grese, the former “angel of death” of the Auschwitz concentration camp, to lengthy biographies of Nazi leaders; from “citizenship and race laws” to Hitler’s political testament, such a wide coverage of the short life of the Third Reich, albeit with some damage to the “one-sided flux of completeness”, gives the reader an excellent opportunity to examine the “beast from the abyss” from all sides.

Albert Egazarov

"AA"

The Astrakhan-Arkhangelsk line, the exit line of German troops, outlined by the Barbarossa plan to create a "barrier against Asiatic Russia". Hitler expected to reach this line in 8-10 weeks. The Soviet armed forces frustrated his calculations for a "blitzkrieg" (see " Blitzkrieg") According to one of the Fuhrer's secretaries, Henry Picker, for some time Hitler hatched a plan to build a giant, like the Great Wall of China, East Wall along the line "A-A".

AB action

(Aizzegogbepііісііе Veіgіеbipdzakiііop — “Emergency Appeasement Action”), the code name for the operation to destroy the Polish intelligentsia during the 2nd World War, the development and control of which was entrusted to the Governor-General of the occupied Polish territory Hans Frank and his deputy Artur Seyss-Inquart .

The decision to carry out this action was taken back in September 1939, and from November the Gestapo began to arrest professors from Krakow University and send them to concentration camps on the territory of the Reich. Since the number of those to be destroyed was too large, and their transfer to Germany was difficult, it was decided to simplify the matter. “There is no need to place these elements in German concentration camps,” Frank instructed subordinates, “as this would cause difficulties and unnecessary correspondence with families. It is better to resolve these issues in the country itself and in the simplest way. ”After the arrests, a parody was arranged for the trial, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the Gestapo.

But this action reached its peak after the German troops invaded Holland, Belgium, and then France on May 10, 1940, and the attention of the world community switched from the Polish events to the Western theater of operations. Frank wrote: "We must take advantage of the fact that the attention of the whole world is riveted to the Western front, and liquidate thousands of Poles, starting with the main representatives of the Polish intelligentsia."

In mid-May 1940, Frank discussed with his Secretary of State Josef Buhler and Seyss-Inquart further details of the action, which was entrusted exclusively to representatives of the RSHA in Poland: SS Obergruppenführer Krüger and Brigadeführer I of the RSHA Directorate Streckenbach, they were assisted by

given the SS men who came specially from Germany. On May 30, Frank issued his final instructions: “Any attempt by the judicial authorities to interfere with the AB operation undertaken by the police will be considered a betrayal of the state of German interests ... The pardon commission, which is under my service, will not deal with these cases ... This is simply an internal a pacification exercise to be carried out outside the normal procedure.” Deprived of the opportunity to appeal to a legal court and without any hope of pardon, Polish intellectuals were cold-bloodedly “liquidated” by the Gestapo and the SS.

At the farewell ceremony arranged on the occasion of Streckenbach's departure to Berlin, Frank uttered with cynicism the terrible phrase: “What was performed in the General Government by you, Brigadeführer Streckenbach, and your people, should not be forgotten, and you should not be ashamed deed."

From September 1939 to June 1940 alone, more than 2,000 people were executed as part of Operation AB. Frank left a detailed account of his "work", numbering forty-two notebooks. Among the victims of this action were many Jews.

Abver

(Abv / ebg - defense, reflection; Abv.), military intelligence and counterintelligence agency of Nazi Germany. It was formed in 1919 by the government of the bourgeois Weimar Republic, when General von Schleicher brought all the secret services under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defense. Since the terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919 did not allow the re-establishment of intelligence agencies in Germany, the functions of military counterintelligence in the armed forces were formally assigned to the Abwehr. From 1933, the Abwehr was in constant conflict with the Nazi secret services SD and the Gestapo.

From January 1935 to 1944, the Abwehr was headed by an experienced intelligence officer, Admiral Friedrich Wilhelm Canaris, who actively contributed to the transformation of the Abwehr into the most important instrument of Hitler's policy. In 1938, the Abwehr was reorganized into the Directorate of Intelligence and Counterintelligence of the Supreme High Command of the German Armed Forces (OKW). The Abwehr was supposed to ensure the secrecy of Germany's military preparations, the surprise of its attacks, as well as the success of the "blitzkrieg" by disorganizing and disintegrating the rear of the countries chosen as targets of aggression.

The central apparatus of the Abwehr consisted of 5 main departments, directly subordinate to the head of the Abwehr. The 1st department of the Abwehr (“A-G”) was engaged in organizing intelligence abroad, obtaining information about the military and economic potential of a potential enemy. It consisted of subdivisions in charge of various aspects of military intelligence. Subdivisions were built according to geographical and sectoral principles. The "West" subdivision was in charge of the organization of intelligence in the countries of the West, the "Ost" subdivision - in the countries of the East. There were subdivisions that were in charge of intelligence in the naval and air forces, the military industry of foreign states, etc. The 2nd department of the Abwehr (“A-N”) led the organization of sabotage activities abroad and behind enemy lines. It included subdivisions “West”, “Ost”, “Zuyd-Ost”, etc., as well as special units for the logistics of sabotage and terrorist activities. The main tasks of the department "A-II": undermining the morale of the army and the population of the enemy countries, creating“fifth columns”, destruction or capture of especially important military and industrial facilities, terrorist operations, misinformation of the political and military leadership of the enemy. Along with special agents, “A-P” widely used in some countries (France, the USA, Norway, etc.) reactionary political organizations with a pro-German orientation, pro-Nazi groups of the so-called “A-P” to solve their problems. "foreign Germans",terrorist groups of emigre and nationalist organizations. The 3rd department of the Abwehr (“A-IP”) headed the military counterintelligence and conducted political investigation in the armed forces and the military industry of Germany. It included subdivisions engaged in counterintelligence in the ground forces, navy, air force, guarding secrets and combating sabotage in the military industry, disinformation of foreign intelligence services, and “servicing” prisoner of war camps. A special place was occupied by the sub-department "III-F", which was in charge of counterintelligence abroad. His main task was to infiltrate the intelligence services of other states, revealing their plans and activities in relation to Nazi Germany. An important element of the Abwehr was the department “ausland” (“foreigners”), which interacted with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The department collected intelligence information by studying the foreign press, broadcasts and literature, processing information received from the German military attaches abroad, in fact led their intelligence activities. The Central Department (“C”) of the Abwehr dealt with administrative issues, was in charge of the central archive and file cabinet of Abwehr agents.

The Abwehr had an extensive peripheral apparatus both in Germany itself and abroad. Its main links in Germany were special departments, the so-called. “Abverstelle”, created at the headquarters of military districts and naval bases. They specialized in intelligence and counterintelligence activities in certain areas. Abroad, an extensive system of peripheral organs of the Abwehr consisted of residencies in enemy countries, as well as the so-called “military organizations” ("Kpedaogdapіzaііop" -KO) in neutral and some allied states (Turkey, Iran, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Finland, Argentina, etc.). The main purpose of these bodies is to conduct subversive activities against states considered hostile by the Nazi leadership. The KO included subdivisions A-G, A-IG and A-IP, which were usually located in German embassies and consulates, but were operationally independent of them.

Before and during the first period of the 2nd World War, the Abwehr, despite the fierce competition of other intelligence services (primarily the SD - the security services of the Nazi Party), was the central body for conducting intelligence activities abroad. He played a great role in preparing and ensuring the success of Hitler's aggression against the states of Europe. After the capture of Austria (see Anschluss) and Czechoslovakia, the efforts of the Abwehr were focused on fulfilling the directive of the Supreme High Command of the Armed Forces (OKW) to attack Poland (see Plan Weiss). With the participation of the Abwehr, a well-known provocation in Gleiwitz was prepared, which served as a pretext for the German attack on Poland (see Gleiwitz Incident, “Canned food”).The Abwehr actively participated in the preparation of aggression against Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and others.

On the eve of the aggression against the USSR, the Abwehr carried out a number of measures under the Barbarossa plan, significantly expanded the scope of activities to obtain intelligence information about the USSR, prepared special sabotage groups to conduct subversive activities in the rear, masked military preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union. In June 1941, the so-called. "valley headquarters" for the direct management of intelligence activities on the Soviet-German front. In 1942, the "Sonderstab R" was created, designed mainly to combat the partisan movement, reconnaissance paratroopers and conduct propaganda among the population of the occupied territories. February 14, 1944 due to a number of Abwehr failures in activities against the USSR and as a result of competition with other intelligence agencies, and also with the fall in the confidence of the Nazi elite in Canaris, a decree was issued to disband the Abwehr. By this decree, the Abwehr 

It was divided into parts that went to different departments - mainly as part of the General Directorate of Imperial Security (RSHA).

Abwehr policeman

(Alѵѵebg-roІіхEI), special units of the border police in Germany. Since the beginning of World War II, they were under the control of the Gestapo.

Abetz, Otto

(Abeig), (1903-1958), German diplomat. Born May 26, 1903 in Schwetzingen. From July 8, 1940 (after the fall of France) to 1944, he was German ambassador to the French government of Vichy. In his youth, while still an art teacher in Karlsruhe, he became one of the leaders of the Salbergkreis youth organization , among other goals of which was to establish contacts with French supporters of Nazism. For the first time, Abetz entered the international arena during the Munich Conference of 1938 and in a short time rose to the position of Joachim von Ribbentrop's deputy. He was an adviser to the German military administration in Paris and was in contact with the authorities of the unoccupied territory of France. Pierre Lavalconsidered him the most influential German representative in France, placing him even higher than the commander of the German occupation forces. After Germany occupied southern France, Abetz was given responsibility for conducting SD operations and Angievreian actions in France.

In July 1949, among other war criminals, he was sentenced in Paris to 20 years in prison. He was released from a French prison in April 1958. In the same year, he died in a car accident, not without the participation, as is believed, of former members of the French Resistance who took revenge on him.

"Ultimate Weapon"

A term implying a weapon against which there is no protection. It was first put into circulation by Nazi propaganda on the eve of the collapse of the Third Reich in order to raise the morale of the army and the population. Its appearance is connected with the work on the creation of atomic weapons, which were carried out at that time in Germany (see "Weapons of Retribution").

Abshnite

(АЬзсбпіН), a territorial and military unit (numbering 8-10 thousand people) in the SS system. The parent organization is Oberabshnit. The term was also used in relation to local units of the SD - the security service.

Aviation in the Third Reich

See Luftwaffe, Milch, Me-269, Messerschmitt, Junkers-87 and others

Austrian legion

Created in the early 30s. on the territory of Bavaria, under the patronage of Himmler, a military organization from among the Austrian National Socialists who lived in Germany and carried out subversive activities on the territory of Austria. The main goal of the Austrian legion was to fight for the overthrow of the Austrian government and the inclusion of Austria in the Third Reich (see Anschluss). At the head of the legion was SS Brigadeführer Alfred Rodenbücher. The Austrian legion was armed with small arms, machine guns and mortars. Legionnaires adhered to strict military discipline, many lived in camps and seriously prepared for war with their own government. Austrian Chancellor Engelbert DollfussAs early as the summer of 1933, he banned Nazi organizations in Austria and the activities of the Austrian Legion, ordered the arrest of many of its members and forced the rest to flee to Germany. Dollfuss protested to the German Foreign Ministry, accusing Germany of complicity with the Austrian legion, to which he replied that Germany “cannot interfere in the internal affairs of a sovereign state

SS rebels arrested in Vienna on July 25, 1934

gifts." However, Berlin also added that the Austrian Nazis had the right to elect Hitler as their Fuhrer. On the basis of the Austrian legion in Austria, illegal SS formations were created, led by the former sergeant-major of the Austrian army Fridolin Glass, who participated in the July putsch of 1934 suppressed by government troops.

Autarky

(Greek, aiiagkeia - sufficiency), self-sufficiency, self-satisfaction in economic terms - the official economic theory of Nazism. The term autarchy in Thucydides meant the political and economic independence of the country from other states. Hitler constantly declared that Germany was striving for Autarky. German sufficiency, he said, should come from military considerations, and the Third Reich should become immune to blockades like those that burdened Germany during the 1st World War.

Autobahn

(AudioBannen), high-speed highways, considered one of the outstanding achievements of the Third Reich. Their construction began even before the Nazis came to power (the first Cologne-Bonn highway was opened in 1932) in accordance with the public works program developed during the Weimar Republic (in 1928). Although the Nazis initially boycotted this program, when they came to power and appointed the Munich engineer Fritz Todt as Chief Inspector of German Roads, they demanded loans for their own Autobahn program.

By the beginning of World War I, the German road network was under the jurisdiction of the General Staff and was considered exclusively in military interests - for the transfer and deployment of troops. In preparation for the 2nd World War, the Autobahns were intended to ensure the rapid delivery of military units and cargo to the areas of combat operations. This explained their structural difference from other road networks in Germany: 4 seven-meter lanes in each direction, which ensured the movement of motorized units at a speed of at least 50 km per hour.

In the 30s. The German Autobahn building program was unparalleled in Europe. Over 30,000 workers were involved in this task; by the beginning of World War II, their number had doubled. It was envisaged to build 10,000 km of roads, and although only a quarter of the planned was ready by the start of the war, nevertheless

Hitler "begins" the construction of the autobahn in 1933. Streicher, Dr. Todt and Dr. Ley are present

Germany received a significant modern road network long before its European adversaries. Hitler personally participated in the opening ceremonies of many highways, which were turned into national holidays by Nazi propaganda.

Agrarianpolitisher apparatus

(Adgagroііііїзсег Аррагаі; AA), the department of the Nazi Party that was in charge of agricultural issues.

Adam, Wilhelm

(Asiat), (1877-1949), general of the German army. Born September 15, 1877 in Ansbach, Bavaria. During World War I he was an officer in the Bavarian army. After the war he served in the Reichswehr; in 1922 - lieutenant colonel, in 1927 - colonel. A straightforward and capable officer, he gained a reputation as the "father of the German mountain shooters" and a highly qualified General Staff specialist. In 1930 he was promoted to major general and became the successor to General Kurt von Hammerstein. December 1, 1931 Adam was awarded the rank of lieutenant general. In 1933 he was appointed commander of the 7th military district in Munich. In 1935, Adam headed the Academy of the Army in Berlin, was engaged in the training of officers of various parts of the ground forces. Unharmed during the Blomberg-Fritsch affairat the beginning of 1938, he was appointed commander of an army group in Kassel.

Adam's relationship with Hitler was rather cool, not only because of his close friendship with General Kurt von Schleicher, but also because Adam openly criticized the Fuhrer's plans. On June 26, 1938, Adam was summoned to the Berghof to personally report to Hitler on how the construction of the “Western Wall” was progressing. In his typically tactless manner, Adam stated that the shaft was “not so very...”, which angered the Fuhrer. On August 27, 1938, during an inspection tour of the construction of the rampart, Hitler met with Adam, who again warned the Fuhrer that his soldiers could not keep the rampart in such a disposition. Hitler was furious: “A soldier who cannot hold such fortifications is an ordinary mongrel!” ( "Nipb&oii")Despite this scene, Adam remained in command of the western defensive belt for some time. He was removed on November 27, 1938, despite being seventh in rank among the senior officers of the German armed forces. Adam died in Garmisch on April 8, 1949.

Adenauer, Conrad

(Asiepaieg), (1876-1967), statesman and politician of Germany, who led its restoration after the defeat of the Third Reich. Born January 5, 1876 in Cologne. After graduating from university in 1901, he became a lawyer. Since 1906 he was a member of the municipal council of Cologne, since 1909 he was deputy burgomaster, and in 1917-33 he was mayor of Cologne. Participated after the 1st World War in the movement of the Rhine separatists. In 1926 he put forward his candidacy for the post of chancellor, but failed. In 1920-32 he was chairman of the Prussian Council of State. He was one of the leaders of the Catholic party "Center". He was a member of the supervisory boards of joint-stock companies in the energy and coal industries and the Deutsche Bank. After the Nazis came to power in 1933, he resigned from his posts due to his uncompromising rejection of Hitler and the philosophy of National Socialism.

Adenauer twice, in 1934 and 1944, was arrested by the Gestapo as an implacable opponent of the regime. After the second arrest, he was in the Brauweiler prison. The head of the prison told him, “Please don't try to commit suicide. In your case, this is no longer necessary. You are 68 years old and your life is over anyway.” Adenauer had been Chancellor of West Germany for two years longer than Hitler had held that position in the Third Reich.

After the end of World War II, Adenauer was among the founders of

Conrad Adenauer

party Christian Democratic Union, and since 1946 its chairman. In 1948-49 - President. n. Parliamentary Council. From September 1949 to October 1963 - Federal Chancellor of West Germany, in 1951-55 also Minister of Foreign Affairs.

A thorough, unusually strong-willed person, Adenauer was extremely popular among the people, he was easily addressed as “Oer AIIe”("Old Man"). Under Adenauer's leadership, West Germany was transformed from a hopeless, failed country into a worthy member of the world community. As the first Federal Chancellor, he directed his efforts towards easing the restrictions imposed by the Allies on Germany. He contributed to internal stabilization, strengthening ties with France, uniting with the movement for European integration and received support and confidence from Western countries. Adenauer signed the Paris Peace Treaty, and in 1955 concluded an agreement with the Soviet Union. His achievements in the industrial reconstruction of post-war Germany looked like an economic miracle. He voluntarily resigned as chancellor in 1963 due to old age, being in the areola of fame as the political and economic architect of his country. Having taken his post at the age of 73, he stayed on it for 14 years.

“Adler und Falke”

("AcІІІer ipb Eaike" - "The Eagle and the Falcon"), a Nazi youth organization created in Thuringia in the early 20s, was repeatedly banned by the authorities of the Weimar Republic. It resumed its activities with the permission of the Nazi Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick.

"Adlerangriffe"

("AsiІegapdgII'e" - "Eagle Raid"), code name of the operation

Luftwaffe against England, designed by Hermann Göring and conducted in mid-August 1940 

forces of the German 3rd Air Fleet under the command of Field Marshal HugoSperle. It was intended to destroy the Royal Air Force and prepare for the subsequent invasion and occupation of Great Britain. The combat skill and courage of the British pilots, as well as the actions of a powerful air defense, completely thwarted the plans of the Adlerangriff, which did not allow Hitler to carry out Operation Sea Lion and land on the British Isles. After heavy losses suffered by the Luftwaffe, the main effort was shifted to night bombing of English cities. See also Battle of England; Coventry.

Adlertag

("AcІІІePad" - "Day of the Eagle"), the code name for the beginning of the aerial bombardment of England during Operation Adlerangriffe on August 8, 1940.

Adolf the Lawyer

A popular expression in the Third Reich against Hitler, which spread after his repeated public statements that he was going to achieve political power exclusively by "legal means." Hitler, while deeply contemptuous of the legal system that existed in Germany, nevertheless carefully cultivated in the public eye the image of an ardent supporter of law and order. See also Justice in the Third Reich.

Adolf Hitler Foundation

(AcioI NiIIeg Zrepsie). Created shortly after the Nazis came to power on the initiative of Martin Bormann, who led it. Funds collected through overt or covert extortion, especially from Jewish entrepreneurs, were used “in the interests of the party”: financing festivities, party congresses, paying for vacations, offerings to members of the SA and SS , etc. The fund also financed various Nazi bodies such as the 'BureauRibben-

The historic handshake between Hindenburg and Hitler at the bottom of Potsdam, March 21, 1933. The whole spectacle organized on this day was to serve the German people to see with their own eyes the reconciliation between the old Prussian Christian-nationalist tradition and the new National Socialism. But under the deliberately false slogan of a “national upsurge”, the National Socialists from the very beginning undertook to carry out their “National Socialist Revolution”, which had nothing to do with the “obsolete” Prussian, national and Christian values.

trail” - a rival of the State Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Those who hoped to benefit from collaboration with the Nazis voluntarily donated substantial sums to the Fuehrer's various projects. Some NSDAP hierarchs made attempts to establish such funds for themselves, but Bormann, having received from Hitler the monopoly of ownership of this fund, immediately discouraged them, remaining the most influential figure in the Third Reich after the Fuhrer.

Adolf Hitler School

(АсІоІТ Ніііег БсГшІе), the first of three types of schools established at the initiative of Hitler to train the Nazi elite. (For the other two types of schools, see Napolas and Ordensburgen.) Candidates for the “Adolf Hitler Schools” were selected from among the younger group (the so-called “Jungvolk”) of the Hitler Youth organization .They were tested for "racial purity" and sent to two-week youth camps for the final selection. The main selection criterion was physical data: blond-haired and blue-eyed teenagers were more likely to be enrolled in school. The training was conducted according to the military model, the students were divided into departments. Teachers supervised subordinates at all stages of training, including bedtime, monitored their dressing and hygiene. The departments competed with each other, and the students received not an individual assessment, but a collective one. Five days a week were devoted to physical training, and a day and a half to actual study, and newspapers were mainly studied. Education continued until the age of 18, after which the students received a certificate and were considered quite ready to enter the university.

See also Education in the Third Reich.

"Aida"

(“Аісіа”), the code name of the operation carried out by order of Hitler in March 1942, with the aim of the offensive of the troops of General Erwin Rommel in the North. Africa, reaching the line of the Nile and the occupation of Egypt. In the course of stubborn battles with the Anglo-American troops, the goals of the operation were not achieved. See African Corps.

Einsatzgruppen

Einsatzgruppen, (Eipzaigdhirrep), task forces first created by Walter Schellenberg on the orders of Reinhard Heydrich in 1938 before starting operations in Czechoslovakia in order to suppress any resistance from the civilian population.

The task forces were created in accordance with an agreement between the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) and the German High Command of the Armed Forces (OKW).

In mid-May 1941, Heydrich instructed the chief of the Gestapo (Amt IV) Heinrich Müller to discuss with the military authorities an agreement on the activities of the Einsatzgruppen in the rear of the troops who were to fight on the Eastern Front. The straightforward Müller turned General Wagner against him.Then Heydrich entrusted this delicate mission to the clever diplomat and future head of the foreign department of the SD (Amt VI) Schellenberg, who managed to persuade the military, who until that time had firmly resisted any Gestapo actions in their rear. Heydrich's instructions were tough: it is necessary to ensure that the army not only tolerates the presence of task forces in its rear, but also "makes it incumbent on its responsible services to provide full support to all activities of these groups, the political police and the security service." Schellenberg was able to successfully complete the order, and at the end of May, Heydrich signed the agreement. He received freedom of action in the East.

The army was ordered to assist the operational groups, supply them with fuel and food, put at their disposal means of communication and transport.

Four Einsatzgruppen were created, dividing the front among themselves.

Mass extermination of Jews in Liepaja (Latvia), December 15-17, 1941

on a geographical basis A - the Baltic countries, B - Smolensk, Moscow, C - the region of Kyiv, D - the southern part of Ukraine. They were headed by experienced Nazis, who had long forgotten what remorse, which Himmler constantly attacked, was like.

Each Einsatzgruppen included from 1,000 to 1,200 men, distributed among several Einsatzkommandos. The professional composition of the groups was carefully thought out and weighed. For every 1,000 people, there were approximately 350 SS men, 150 drivers and mechanics, 100 members of the Gestapo, 80 auxiliary police officers (usually recruited on the spot), 130 order police officers, 40-50 criminal police officers and 30-35 SD officers. A certain number of translators, radio operators, telegraph operators, administrative workers and female personnel were also supposed, since women were also included in these units of the killers (from 10 to 15 per group). The leading staff consisted, of course, of the Gestapo and a small number of SD and criminal police officers.

The creation of operational teams was completed by the end of June 1941, and in early July they began operations. In the instructions defining the scope of their duties, in the first place was the task of "liquidating" Jews and political commissars. The corresponding orders were communicated to the unit commanders at a conference in Pretz, which was held on June 19 by Streckenbach, who had come specially from Berlin. In pursuance of this order, the Jewish part of the population, including children, was subject to complete annihilation. In Riga, for example, 35,000 people were executed. During the war, 195,000 people were killed in Kyiv. SS- Obergruppenführer Bach-Zalewski proudly wrote on October 31, 1941: “There are no more Jews in Estonia” 1. The executions of the civilian population were accompanied by rampant robbery. Everything that could be used at least somehow was confiscated: shoes, leather goods, clothing, jewelry, gold, valuables. Ohlendorf said that the extermination of the Jews always began, if time allowed, with their forced registration with the police. When they were collected to be taken to execution, all their clothes and all belongings were confiscated and handed over to the security service for shipment to the Reich Ministry of Finance. Thus, assassinations were used as official methods of financing the state. At the beginning of 1942, a monstrous machine was invented in Berlin by a certain Nazi technocrat, SS Unter Sturmführer Becker, later called “truck 3” - “gas chamber”.

The exact number of victims of the activities of the Einsatzgruppen itself has not yet been established, but only on the territory of the USSR, about 750 thousand people were destroyed by four operational groups.

“Eisstoss”

(“EI58IO38" - “Ice Strike”), the code name for the operation of the 1st air fleet of Nazi Germany in World War 2, carried out in April 1942 with the aim of destroying the ships of the Soviet Baltic Fleet, bound by ice on the Neva. The plan provided for the opening of the ice in the Gulf of Finland to conduct a series of massive air raids.

The first raid, in which more than 100 bombers took part, was carried out on April 4, the second on the night of April 5, the subsequent ones on April 24, 25, 27 and 30. In total, 325 bombers and attack aircraft, covered by fighters, participated in these raids. However, due to the active actions of the air defense and air forces of the Leningrad Front, the expectation of an easy success did not materialize. No more than one-third of the aircraft participating in the operation broke through to the targets; more than 90 of them were destroyed.

"Aiche"

("EisGie" - "Oak"), the code name for one of the four operations signed by Hitler on July 31, 1943, the purpose of which was to prevent the expected invasion of the Allied forces on the Italian mainland (see also "Akse", "Schwarz", "Student" The Eiche plan provided for the release of Benito Mussolini captured by Italian partisans. On September 13, 1943, a unit of German paratroopers led by Otto Skorzeny landed in the Abruzzi Apennines, where Mussolini was kept, and freed him. From that time on, the “Duce” became a puppet in the hands of Hitler in German-occupied Italian territory.

"Photo"

(“Asbze” - “Axis”), the code name for one of a series of four military operations (Hitler’s directive of July 31, 1943) in order to prevent the upcoming landing of allied forces on the coast of mainland Italy (see also “Aiche”, “Schwartz”, “ Student"). The plan of operation provided for the capture or destruction of the Italian fleet. An earlier version of the Alaric was postponed to September 9, 1943, the day after Italy surrendered to 

allies. Operation Schwartz (occupation of the entire territory of Italy) and Operation Akse were supposed to be combined.

Mussolini and Otto Skorzeny in the Abruzzo Alps after the successful kidnapping of the Duce according to the Eiche plan

Axman, Arthur

(Achtapp), leader of the Hitler youth movement (1940-45) (see "Hitler Youth"). Born February 18, 1913 in Hagen. Having joined the Nazi youth movement in 1928, he quickly began to climb the Nazi hierarchical ladder and after 4 years became one of the leaders of the German youth. In 1933 Axmann was appointed head of the Public Council for Youth Affairs of the Reich. On August 8, 1940, he was appointed Reich Youth Leader of the NSDAP, succeeding Baldur von Chirac in this post. In 1941, while fighting in Russia, Axman lost his arm. Under his leadership, the militarization of the Hitler Youth took place. At the very end of the war, he fielded about 1000 young people from his organization for the defense of Berlin. Axman was among those who were in the Fuhrerbunker in April 1945 (see."Twilight of the Gods"); he also gave details of the death of Hitler and Eva Braun, and also stated that

Arthur Axman

saw the body of Martin Bormann. According to Shearer, Axman left his charges defending the Pichelsdorf Bridge to their fate, fled and was arrested only in November 1945 in Bavaria. Having successfully passed the process of denazification, he became a successful businessman after the war.

Alarich

(“Аіагісб”), the code name for the plan for the transfer of German troops from France to Italy during the 2nd World War in the event of the capitulation of Italy or its transition to the side of the Anti-Hitler coalition. Implemented in August 1943. After the fall of the Mussolini regime, on the orders of Hitler, 7 divisions of the Wehrmacht from France and 1 division from Germany through the Alpine passages moved to Italy.Further capture of Italian territory and the disarmament of Italian troops were carried out according to the plan of Operation Akse.

Alexander of Tunis

(АІехасіер оТТіпіз), Harold Rupert Leofric George (1891-1969), English field marshal (1944). Born December 10, 1891 in Tyrone (Ireland). He graduated from the colleges of Harrow and Sandhurst, then the staff (1927) and imperial (1930) defense colleges. Member of the 1st World War. In 1918-19 he was a member of the British military mission in Poland. In 1934-38 he was the commander of an infantry brigade that participated in the suppression of the national liberation movement in India. At the beginning of World War II, he commanded the 1st Infantry Division, then the army corps of the British Expeditionary Army in France, led the evacuation of troops from Dunkirk (see Dunkirk operation of 1940).In 1941-42 he commanded British troops in Burma. From August 1942 he headed the British Middle East Command, coordinated the actions of the allied forces in the North. Africa in 1942-43. For the leadership of military operations in the North. Africa, he was given the title of Lord of Tunisia. In 1943 he commanded the 18th Army Group in Tunisia, then the 15th Allied Army Group, which landed on about. Sicily and Italy. From December 1943 Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. In 1946-52 Governor General of Canada, in 1952-54 Minister of Defense of Great Britain. Retired since 1954.

Allket

(“AIIKEI”), one of the largest tank factories (Berlin). Most of its workshops were destroyed during an Allied air raid on November 26, 1943. Upon learning of what had happened, Hitler ordered all fire departments from Potsdam to Brandenburg to immediately arrive at Allket in order to save at least part of the key industries.

Allgemeine SS

(AІІdeteіne-88), ordinary units of the SS troops, formed on a permanent basis or temporarily, combat or reserve. Unlike the SS troops (VaTTep-88), they, as a rule, did not have their own insignia, standards and names. Soldiers of the SS troops who were guilty of something could be transferred to the Allgemeine-SS. In turn, many units of the SS troops were replenished at the expense of the Allgemeine-SS, but these two structures each existed independently.

Allgemeines Wehrmachtsamt

(AIIdeteipez VVeIgtasIizati; AVVA), a special department of the Supreme High Command of the Armed Forces of Germany (SLE), which was mainly engaged in recruiting personnel, their military training and equipment.

"Alpine violet"

("AirepveiiІssen"), the code name for the operation of the invasion of German troops into Albania in early 1941. At a military conference on January 11, 1941, Hitler decided to send reinforcements to the Italian troops bogged down in Albania, hoping thereby to avoid a collapse in the Balkans as a whole.

"Alpine redoubt"

(“AirepTeziipd”), a headquarters in the Alps in the Obersalzberg region, where at the end of the 2nd World War Hitler intended to take refuge and from where, as he believed, he would be able to lead the defense of the Reich and stop the advance of the Allied forces. The general idea of ​​the "Alpine Redoubt" probably belonged to Goebbels. By order of Himmler, the development and organization of the "Alpine Redoubt" was entrusted to Ern sta Kaltenbrunner. Despite the fact that the construction of the "Alpine Redoubt" had already begun, Hitler changed his mind and settled in a specially 

equipped bunker in Berlin, from where he led the last defense of the Third Reich (see Fuhrerbunker).

"Alte Kempfer"

(“AІіе KatrTeg” - “Old fighters, comrades-in-arms”), the traditionally accepted name in the Third Reich for old comrades who stood at the origins of the Nazi movement, especially revered for their contribution to the development of National Socialism. Hitler highly valued their old merits, generously giving them bureaucratic positions. In the Third Reich, they had great benefits, enjoyed an advantage in enrolling in public positions, they were guaranteed the status of civil servants. Those who were wounded and maimed in street battles with the communists were given various benefits, they were paid pensions, as every disabled war veteran was supposed to.

Altmark

(“AItagk”), a German transport auxiliary ship that accompanied the battleship Graf Spee. She was sunk by the British in the Norwegian Sea in February 1940.

The Altmark was transporting to Germany about 300 British sailors captured by the Graf Spee during the Battle of the Atlantic.On February 14, 1940, British search planes spotted the Altmark in Norwegian territorial waters heading south towards Germany. The captain of the Altmark, hiding from the Norwegian authorities that there were prisoners of war on board, hid the ship in the Jossing Fjord. Upon learning of this, Prime Minister Wu - Churchill ordered to attack the "Altmark". On the night of February 16-17, the destroyer Kozzak entered the fjord and came close to the German ship. The British assault party landed on deck, killing 4 and wounding 5 crew members, and freed 299 of their comrades. The Norwegian government protested to Britain in connection with the violation of its territorial waters, to which Britain replied that Norway itself was violating international law by providing the Germans with their waterways to transport British prisoners of war to Germany. Hitler

"Altona"

(“AIopa”), code name for suspending the start of Operation Barbarossa. See also Dortmund.

Alphart, Felix

(AITAN), (1901-1923), one of the first Nazi heroes in the martyrology, the so-called. "martyrs". Born July 5, 1901 in Leipzig. Becoming an enthusiastic admirer of Hitler, he took part in the march to the Feldherrnhall during the "Beer Putsch" of 1923 in Munich and was killed in a shootout with the police. Dying, according to Nazi legend, he sang "Deutschland über allee". Hitler honored him with being mentioned in a dedication to Mein Kampf.

Aman, Max

(Atapp), (1891-1957), Reichsleiter, President of the Imperial Press Chamber (since 1933). Born November 24, 1891 in Munich, Catholic. During the 1st World War, he served in the Bavarian Infantry Regiment, was a sergeant major - the immediate superior of Corporal Adolf Hitler. He was awarded the Iron Cross II degree. Aman was an early supporter of Hitler and National Socialism. In 1921 he became the first administrator of the Nazi Party, and after 1922 he was director of the Central Publishing House of the NSDAP - Echer Verlag. While in Landsberg prison, Hitler titled his notes rather cumbersomely and indigestibly - "Four and a half years of struggle against lies, stupidity and cowardice." Aman, becoming the publisher of this book, changed the title to "Mein Kampf"("My struggle"). In addition, he owned over half of all German newspapers.

Amnesty 1934

Trying to calm Germany after the bloody events of June 30, 1934, Hitler announced an amnesty in the country on August 7, 1934, according to which many prisoners were released, and above all the surviving arrested members of the SA. Five days earlier, President Paul von Hindenburg died, and Hitler assumed the post of Reich President. The amnesty was announced to ease anxiety among civil servants frightened by the events of the Night of the Long Knives.

Amnesty 1939

Secret amnesty announced by Hitler on October 4, 1939 in the interests of the SS military units (see SS Troops). Shortly after the invasion of Poland, Hitler allowed the Leinsatzgruppas to seize and destroy Jewish organizations. Higher officers of the armed forces, offended by their cruelty and atrocities, intervened in some of the most monstrous cases. To put an end to the army's interference in the actions of the SS units, this amnesty was intended.

Amt ausland Abwer

(Amі AizІapsІ аbѵѵebg), one of the departments of the Supreme High Command of the Armed Forces of Germany (OKB), which was in charge of foreign intelligence. At first, the central services of the Abwehr bore the general name “Ati Aiziapb pasbgisYep ipb Abvvebg” - “Intelligence and Counterintelligence Directorate”. After the decree of February 14, 1944 on the disbandment of the Abwehr, it was divided into parts that went to different departments, and Walter Schellenberg became the full owner of all services foreign intelligence.

Anglo-German Naval Agreement 1935

The agreement that changed the ratio of the naval forces of Great Britain and Nazi Germany. Signed June 18th. By agreement, the total displacement of the German navy and the British Commonwealth navies was to be in the proportion of 35: 100. This proportion was to be applied both to the total tonnage and to each class of ships. Germany received the right to have an equal submarine fleet with England, but pledged not to go beyond the 45% tonnage limit of the British submarine fleet. She also undertook not to change the established proportion without prior notice and discussion. This agreement essentially sanctioned Hitler's violation of the military restrictions imposed on Germany by the Versailles Treaty of 1919,was one of the first actions to "appease" Nazi Germany and actually gave her the opportunity to build up the strength of the fleet, which objectively contributed to the outbreak of World War II. The official English comments emphasized that the 35% rate should ensure Germany's complete domination of the USSR in the Baltic Sea. In addition, Hitler's Germany, not meeting opposition from England, did not intend to limit the construction of the fleet within the framework of this agreement at all. The failure of the "appeasement" policy actually led to the liquidation of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. In December 1938, Germany informed the British government that it would maintain a submarine fleet equal in displacement to the British. On April 28, 1939, Hitler announced in the Reichstag that the Anglo-German Naval Agreement was terminated .

See also Submarine fleet of the Third Reich.

“Angrif”

(“Eeg ApdgіN” - “Storm”), a Nazi newspaper founded by Goebbels in 1927 in Berlin. In contrast to the official Nazi party daily “Völkischer Beobachter” , published in Munich, “Angrif” was essentially Goebbels’ personal print organ, in which he published everything that he

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Newspaper “Oeg UpdgіN” dated November 28, 1934

please. The subtitle of the newspaper was the slogan "Down with the oppressors!" Goebbels reserved a column on the front page for his own scandalous articles, which he invariably signed “Og. FROM." All attempts by the authorities of the Weimar Republic to discredit the newspaper were unsuccessful. Goebbels' thugs used brutal pressure tactics in the struggle of street newspaper vendors. Angrif never reached large circulations, since it served mainly as a mouthpiece for Goebbels' discontent.

“Angstbrooch”

("AndzіbgossNe" - "The Brooch of Fear"), the epithet with which German citizens dissatisfied with the Nazi regime were awarded the Nazi party badge.

Anders, Wladyslaw

(Apsiers), (1892-1970), Polish general. In 1941-42 he commanded the Polish army, formed on Soviet territory under an agreement between the USSR and the Polish government in exile. The command led by Anders refused to joint with the Sov. Army fighting against German troops. In August 1942, Anders' army was withdrawn to Bl. East. Part of the Polish soldiers and officers left this army and remained in the USSR to continue the fight against Germany. In 1944-45 Anders commanded the Polish units of the allied forces on the Western Front.

Anenpass

(Aipeprazz), a document certifying the purity of Aryan origin, which every German was obliged to carry with him at all times. The purpose of the introduction of "anenpass" was to identify those persons among whose ancestors there were Jews. During the Nazi regime, the practice of selling fake IDs was widespread.

Anenschein

(AKpezsbeip - certificate of origin), a document certifying the true Aryan origin of its owner.

Anenerbe

(Aypener - "Heritage of the Ancestors", full name - "German Society for the Study of Ancient Germanic History and Heritage of Ancestors"), created in 1933 with the support and financial assistance of the Darre cabinet, the society, which since 1935 was entrusted with studying everything related to the spirit, deeds, traditions, features and heritage of the "Indo-Germanic Nordic race". With the decline of Darre's influence in the Nazi Party, Himmler integrated the "Ahnenerbe" VSS (1937), subordinating it as a department for the management of concentration camps. concentration camps.

The study of ancient German history in a strange mixture of natural science and romanticism was carried out with the constant and sole purpose of confirming the superiority of the Aryan race within the framework of the racial doctrine of National Socialism. Since 1938, all archaeological excavations have been carried out with the knowledge of the public. Solid funding made it possible to attract many first-class university scientists to scientific research, with the help of which certain successes were achieved: excavations of the Viking fortifications of the 9th century were carried out, expeditions to Tibet and the Middle East took place, later research and protection of ancient settlements and mounds in the occupied southern parts were carried out. Ukraine.

With the outbreak of World War II, the study of the heritage of ancient German culture was reduced, and new research projects were completely transferred to the jurisdiction of the SS, among which the first place was taken by anthropological (measurement of the skulls of Auschwitz prisoners and executed Russian commissars in order to compare them with Aryan heads) and some medical (including the sinister experiments at Dachau by Rascher and Mengele 's "works" at Auschwitz) research.

Nazi propaganda presented the activities of the Ahnenerbe as a study of the roots of the German nation, from which the Nazi SS organizations grew and developed. Established for the purpose of more or less scientific research, the society very quickly degenerated under Himmler's patronage into a criminal organization engaged in monstrous medical experiments on humans. SS-Sturmbannführer Dr. Hirt was placed at the head of the medical faculty of the University of Strasbourg, the society's main center for medical research. Sievers was the general secretary of the Ahnenerbe society. In its final phase, the Ahnenerbe turned into a bureaucratic octopus, striving for power, for example, control at the end of the war over the completely unrelated F-2 program, which was headed by Werner vonBrown. On January 1, 1942, it was included in Himmler's personal headquarters and completely became an organ of the SS.

The society ceased to exist with the end of the Third Reich.

Entente, Balkan

The union of Greece, Turkey, Yugoslavia and Romania, created in 1934 with the active participation of France and the support of Britain, with the aim of maintaining a balance of power in the Balkans within the framework of the Versailles system. A number of factors influenced the formation of the Balkan Entente: the threat of fascist aggression and the growing influence of Germany and Italy in the Balkans, the desire of France to strengthen its position in Europe by expanding the system of military blocs, as well as the growth of the revolutionary movement caused by the economic crisis of 1929-34 and the desire to suppress it by joint efforts. The signing of an agreement on the creation of the Balkan Entente was preceded by bilateral agreements between Greece and Turkey, Romania and Turkey, Yugoslavia and Turkey. On February 9, 1934, an agreement was concluded in Athens on the creation of the Entente of the Balkans without determining its duration, providing for mutual guarantees of the security of the Balkan borders. At the same time, a secret protocol was signed, according to which the participating countries of the Entente of the Balkans pledged not to attack each other and to provide mutual assistance in case of an attack on one of them by another European power (no mutual assistance was provided for in an attack on the Asian part of Turkey). Entering the Balkan Entente, Turkey made a reservation that it would participate in those actions that did not contradict its treaty relations with the USSR. The Entente of the Balkans was undermined by the intrigues of Germany and Italy, aimed at undermining French influence in the Balkans and at turning this region into a springboard for aggression. Shortly after the outbreak of World War II, the Balkan Entente collapsed: Greece and Yugoslavia became victims of fascist aggression, Romania became an active satellite of Nazi Germany.

Антанта, Малая

textbook in the field of organization and activities of the police services. In 1936, Best moved to the Ministry of the Interior, where he was in charge of the security police. Thanks to Best's legal scholasticism, Hitler managed to "disown" the "numerous accidents" that occurred in the dungeons of the Gestapo. Best always looked for successful formulations: "As soon as the police

is added from the dictates of the leadership, it begins to act legally.

In 1940-42 Best served on the headquarters of the military command in France. From November 1942 to May 1945 he was Reichskommissar for occupied Denmark. In this post, he tried to act relatively soft (by Nazi standards) methods to attract the Danes, and in particular the physicist Niels Bohr, to cooperate. His position here greatly reduced the consequences of the "Final Solution" and allowed the greater part of the Danish Jews to flee to Sweden. However, this did not save Best from the Danish court, which in 1948 sentenced him to death, later commuted to five years in prison. After serving his term, he returned to Germany, where in 1958 he was again convicted for his involvement in mass executions. Best was released on health grounds in 1972.

“Befristete forbeigungshaftlinge”

(Betgіzіеіе vogеidipdzba PІіpde; ВV), a category of concentration camp prisoners with a limited period of preventive detention. According to the Gestapo classification , they were criminals who had already served several terms of punishment.

Becher, Kurt

(Wesbeg), assistant to Heinrich Himmler. Born September 12, 1909 in Hamburg. The former grain merchant, having joined the NSDAP, quickly became an SS Standartenführer (colonel). He headed the commission for the purchase of horses in Hungary for SS units. Becher gained a reputation as a skilled horse wholesaler, for which Himmler entrusted him in the winter of 1944-45 to lead negotiations for the exchange of Jews for cash payments. He failed in this task.

Bechstein, Carl

(Vesbzsbіeіp), owner of a well-known firm for the production of pianos. Since the 1920s, his wife Elena belonged to a group of public and financial patrons of Hitler, whom he called "friends-mothers." Hitler often visited Bayreuth, where the Bechsteins lived, met with their daughter Lotta, who took many photographs of Hitler.

“Bildungsburgertum”

(VіІbipdzygdegІilp - “Burger education”), a term that denoted the commitment of the middle class to receiving a good education, which was the key to well-being in life.

Birkenau

Brzezinka (Bigkepai), a “death camp”, located on the territory of occupied Poland in the Birkenau forests near Auschwitz. It was created by order of Himmler in 1941 as a special extermination center for 100 thousand Russian prisoners. Arriving prisoners were divided into those fit for work and those who were subject to immediate destruction. The latter were forced to undress and sent to the so-called "disinfection rooms" (BizipGemіopetait) in groups of 250 people. After the doors were closed, cans of “cyclone-B” (hydrocyanic acid) were thrown into the room through special openings. Then a special team from among the prisoners pulled out the bodies of the dead, put them in piles and, doused with gasoline, burned them.

Bismarck, Otto

(Viztagsk), (1815-1898), German statesman, one of the most reactionary deputies of the Prussian Landtag. During the Third Reich, Hitler widely used Bismarck's ideas about the militarization of Germany for propaganda purposes.

Bismarck

Germany's most powerful battleship during World War II. Entered service in 1940. Displacement 53 thousand tons, speed 30 knots, crew 1600 people. Armament: 8 381 mm, 12 150 mm, 16105 mm, 16 37 mm guns and 4 aircraft. In order to disrupt the communications of the Anglo-American allies, the German command in May 1941 decided to send to the Atlantic Ocean (Operation Reinyburg)3 battleships, Tues. h. "Bismarck", 1 heavy cruiser and 7 support vessels (5 tankers and 2 supply vessels). On May 18, 1941, the Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prince Eigen left Gdynia. On May 21 and 23, the British managed to find them. To intercept the Bismarck, large forces of the British Navy began to be drawn together. On the morning of May 24, at the exit from the Danish Strait, as a result of a battle with an English detachment (the battleship Prince of Wales, the battlecruiser Hood and 6 destroyers), the Germans managed to sink the Hood and escape pursuit. On the evening of May 24, the German cruiser "Prince Eigen" headed for the Azores, and the "Bismarck" went to Brest. At midnight, the Bismarck was discovered and attacked by 9 torpedo bombers from the aircraft carrier Victories, was damaged by a torpedo, but by the morning of May 25 broke away from pursuit. On May 26, it was again detected from the air and, as a result of an attack by aircraft from the aircraft carrier Arch Royal and destroyers, received new damage, which reduced its speed to 14 knots. Soon the Bismarck was overtaken by the main forces of the English fleet. In the ensuing battle, about 1 thousand large and medium-caliber shells and a large number of torpedoes were fired at the Bismarck. and sank 450 miles southwest of Brest.The sinking of the Bismarck forced the German command to abandon the further use of large warships to fight on communications in the Atlantic, which freed up significant forces of the British fleet. was overtaken by the main body of the English fleet. In the ensuing battle, about 1 thousand shells of large and medium caliber and a large number of torpedoes were fired at the Bismarck. As a result of numerous hits at 10:36 on May 27, 1941, the Bismarck capsized and sank 450 miles southwest of Brest. The sinking of the Bismarck forced the German command to abandon the further use of large warships to fight on communications in the Atlantic, which freed up significant forces of the British fleet. was overtaken by the main body of the English fleet. In the ensuing battle, about 1 thousand shells of large and medium caliber and a large number of torpedoes were fired at the Bismarck. As a result of numerous hits at 10:36 on May 27, 1941, the Bismarck capsized and sank 450 miles southwest of Brest. The sinking of the Bismarck forced the German command to abandon the further use of large warships to fight on communications in the Atlantic, which freed up significant forces of the British fleet.

Battle for England

Under this name, the air battle over the British Isles in August 1940 - May 1941 entered the history of World War II. In the summer of 1940, Hitler, in order to secure the rear for the upcoming war against the USSR, tried to make peace with Great Britain, but did not achieve success. Then, on July 16, Hitler issued Directive No. 16 on the preparation of Operation Sea Lion against England, and on August 1, Directive No. 17 on conducting a wide-ranging air war against England, with the goal of destroying British aviation, destroying the economy, terrorizing the population and forcing Great Britain to capitulate. For this, 3 air fleets were allocated: the 3rd (Colonel-General G. Shperle, in the north-west of France

Battleship "Bismarck"

"Heinkel-219" over the London docks

tion), 2nd (Colonel General Kesselring,to the north-east France) and the 5th (Colonel-General G. Stumpf, in Norway), which included 2800 aircraft, Tue. h. 1600 bombers. For the air cover of the country, England had 4 air groups under the overall command of Air Marshal Dowding (704 aircraft, including 620 fighters, and 289 in reserve); along the coast there was a network of radar installations that provided the air defense system (80 radars). On August 12 and 13, 1940, German aviation carried out the first massive raids on British airfields (August 13, 1,485 sorties against 727 by the British); On August 15, there were 1786 sorties (versus 975 for the British). In these air battles, the superiority of British aviation was revealed. The damage from the bombing was relatively small, and the losses of the Germans amounted to 75 aircraft (against 34 for the British). From August 24 to September 6, German aviation made an average of 1,000 sorties a day, striking mainly at British airfields. From September 7, she launched a bombardment of major cities in England and, above all, London (the raid on September 15 was especially strong). British air defense offered stubborn resistance: from August to October 1940, 1,103 German aircraft were shot down (the British lost 642 aircraft). In November, German aviation suffered the main attack on the peripheral cities and ports of England (Birmingham, Southampton, Liverpool, Bristol, Plymouth). On the night of November 15, the city of Coventry was almost completely destroyed. In the future, the raids became weaker, with the exception of individual ones (for example, a raid of 685 aircraft on April 17, 1941 on London). In 1940, German aviation dropped about 37,000 bombs on England. tons of bombs and in 1941 (mainly until May) about 22 thousand tons. During the year (from June 1940 to June 1941), more than 43 thousand people were killed and about 51 thousand were seriously injured as a result of raids. A number of cities were badly destroyed. However, the main goal - to withdraw Great Britain from the war - was not achieved, because the English people showed courage and the will to resist. The German Air Force suffered heavy losses. Of no small importance was the fact that the German command, in the conditions of preparations for a war against the USSR, could not throw all its aviation forces against Great Britain. The German Air Force suffered heavy losses. Of no small importance was the fact that the German command, in the conditions of preparations for a war against the USSR, could not throw all its aviation forces against Great Britain. The German Air Force suffered heavy losses. Of no small importance was the fact that the German command, in the conditions of preparations for a war against the USSR, could not throw all its aviation forces against Great Britain.

Battle of the Atlantic

The struggle of the USA and Great Britain with Nazi Germany for communications in the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas during the 2nd World War. The term "Battle of the Atlantic" was first officially used by Winston Churchillin a speech on March 6, 1941 in connection with the sharply increased losses of the British merchant fleet. Communications in the Atlantic were of vital importance to the United States and Great Britain, who could not fight a long war in the European theater of operations without major ocean shipping, so one of their main tasks was to achieve dominance in the Atlantic. For Nazi Germany, especially after the attack on the Soviet Union, the Atlantic was a secondary theater, to which she could not allocate significant forces and resources. Germany's main goal in the region was to undermine the economies of Britain and the United States by disrupting Allied ocean shipping. To do this, she used submarines, part of the aviation and surface ships. However, the desire of Germany to destroy as many enemy transport ships as possible, without taking into account the nature of the goods being transported, it led to someone that the German forces acted mainly on the weakly guarded communications of the Allies. At the same time, vital and therefore heavily guarded communications remained safe. Therefore, although Germany managed to sink a significant number of transports in the Atlantic during the war, it ultimately failed to cause significant damage to the military and economic potential of Great Britain and the United States.

The struggle on communications in the Atlantic went through 3 main periods, due to fundamental changes in the alignment of forces and the development of the war as a whole.

The first period (September 1939 - June 1941) is characterized by the fact that at first insignificant forces acted on the Atlantic communications from both sides. From the second half of 1940, the German command put into operation, in addition to submarines and surface ships, aviation. As a result, transports and warships (allies and neutral countries) were sunk by a total displacement

Guard detachment of German submarines in the Atlantic, 1943

7.6 million tons. Of these, submarines accounted for 53.4%, aviation - 18.7%, surface ships - about 12%, mines - 11.8%, for unknown reasons - 4.1%. Germany during this time lost 43 submarines.

The second period (July 1941 - March 1943) is characterized by the fact that the main forces of German aviation and large surface ships were deployed against the USSR. This allowed the Allies to concentrate their main efforts on the fight against enemy submarines. By the end of the period, about 3,000 ships and 2,700 Allied aircraft were operating against 100-130 German submarines in the ocean. Although at certain stages of this period the Germans managed to sink a significant number of transports (in 1942 - 7.8 million tons), the relative efficiency of German submarines (per 1 operating boat at sea) decreased by 3-4 times compared to 1 - m period. During the 2nd period, allied and neutral countries lost transports and warships with a total displacement of about 10 million tons, of which 80% were submarines.

The third period (April 1943 - May 1945) was marked by a radical turning point in the war and the subsequent heavy defeats of the Wehrmacht on the Soviet-German front. These circumstances, as well as the Allied landing in June 1944 in Sev. France, the deprivation of the enemy of an important system of bases in the Bay of Biscay, aerial bombardment of submarine bases and blockade of them in the bases sharply reduced the effectiveness of German submarines, their losses continued to grow catastrophically. For 25 months, Germany sank Allied ships with a total displacement of 3 million tons (of which 73% were from submarines), while losing over 600 submarines, an average of 19 boats per month, while in the 1st period, the average monthly losses were less than 2 boats.

The loss of ships of the allied and neutral countries during the entire war from Germany amounted to about 21 million tons of displacement, of which from submarines - 68.1%, aviation - 13.4%, mines - 6.5%, surface ships - 7.2 % and for unknown reasons - 4.8%. The German Navy lost over 800 submarines.

Bibl.: “Grand Strategy”, trans. from English. T. 2-3, 5-6. M., 1958-67; Morison S.E. The Battle of the Atlantic has been won. May 1943 - May 1945. Per. from English. M., 1959; Roskill S. Fleet and War. Per. from English. T. 1-3. M., 1967-74; Dönitz K. German submarines in the Second World War. Per. with him. M., 1964.

“Beefsteaks”

So in Nazi Germany they contemptuously called those unprincipled communists and socialists who, for their own benefit, joined the Nazi party. They were said to be “brown on the outside and red on the inside.” In June and July 1933, shortly after Hitler came to power, several SA units were formed, almost entirely composed of communists.

Blaskovitz, Johannes

(ВІазкоѵѵііг), (1883-1948), general of the German army. Born July 18, 1883 in Peterswald, Vost. Prussia. After the 1st World War, a regular officer of the Reichswehr. He was one of those who supported the conclusion of an agreement with Soviet Russia, so that Germany could start a war against Poland in order to fulfill its "sacred, albeit sad duty." December 1, 1935 became an infantry general, the next year he was appointed commander of the 2nd military district. Along with General Wilhelm List and Fedor von Bock, he managed to survive the military purge in early 1938 (see the Blomberg-Fritsch case),after which he was appointed commander in Dresden. On March 15, 1939, he led the 3rd Army, introduced into Bohemia during the occupation of Czechoslovakia by Hitler. By the beginning of World War II, Blaskowitz was the seventh most senior general in the Wehrmacht.

In September 1939 he commanded the 8th Army advancing on Poznan. Once he incurred the wrath of the Fuhrer by ordering a temporary retreat, which was regarded almost as treason. However, towards the end of the Polish campaign, on October 22, 1939, Hitler appointed Blaskowitz commander of the ground forces in occupied Poland, headquartered in Spala. While holding this post, Blaskowitz came into conflict with Hans Frank 's civilian deputy, the Austrian Arthur Seyss-Inquart. As a soldier of the old school, Blaskowitz protested against the actions of the SS and the Gestapoagainst the civilian population of Poland. In a memorandum, he warned that the reprehensible actions of the SS in Poland "may in the future be directed against their own people in the same way." Wanting his memorandum to reach Hitler directly, he sent it through the appropriate channels to his immediate superior, General von Brauchitsch. However, the message was "lost".

Although Blaskowitz was unaware of this, members of his headquarters turned out to be involved in a conspiracy against Hitler. In 1944 he became commander of Army Group G under General Gerd von Rundstedt, and in early 1945 he commanded the German troops in the Netherlands.

After the war, an American military tribunal indicted Blaskowitz on 12 counts. February 5, 1948, on the eve of the trial, he committed suicide in Nuremberg prison. Later, a version arose that Blaskowitz was killed by former SS men who were in prison and received a regime indulgence for exemplary behavior.

"Blue"

("Bai" - "Blue Plan"), the code name for the war with Great Britain.

“Blickrig”

("ВІіігкгіэ" - "Lightning War"), a military strategy developed by the Nazi command of warfare, which was used by Nazi generals during the French, Polish and Russian campaigns.

For the first time the theory of "blitzkrieg" was proposed in 1934 by the French colonel Charles de Gaulle in the book "Verz arte de teier". Instead of endless military columns covering only a few kilometers a day, instead of a fixed front line, which was common in the military strategy of the 1st World War, when the opposing armies, burrowing like moles in the ground, showered artillery shells on each other, he proposed to make the main emphasis on mobile motorized parts. The Hitlerite command, having worked out de Gaulle's general strategy more thoroughly and in detail, successfully applied it in the first stage of World War II. The methodology for using the "blitzkrieg" was as follows. At the beginning , the "fifth column"carried out training in the enemy rear, collecting intelligence and disorganizing the actions of the enemy. This was followed by a swift massive bombing strike, in which the air force 

enemy forces were destroyed on the ground, all communications and vehicles of the enemy were put out of action. This was followed by a bombing attack on enemy troop concentrations. And only after that, mobile units were introduced into battle - motorized infantry units, light tanks and self-propelled artillery. Following them, heavy tank units entered the battle, and only at the end regular infantry units were introduced with the support of field artillery. Having successfully used this tactic during the war in France and Poland, Hitler decided to use it when attacking the Soviet Union. However, despite initial success, the blitzkrieg tactics ended in complete failure.

Blockworth

(VІoskvagІ), an official of the Nazi Party, who was responsible for the work of the local (quarter) cells of the NSDAP. At the same time, he was the Gestapo 's main informant about the mood among the population.

Blomberg, Werner von

(VІotbegd), (1878-1946), Field Marshal General of the German Army (since 1936), Minister of War. Born September 2, 1878 in Stargard, Pomerania. Participated in the 1st World War as an officer of the General Staff. Since 1919 in the Reichswehr - head of the combat training department of the Ministry of the Reichswehr (1925-27). In 1927-29 he was the head of the military administration (that is, the disguised General Staff), then (1929-32) he commanded the troops of the 1st military district (East Prussia). From January 1933 Minister of the Reichswehr, from 1935 Minister of War, simultaneously from May 1935 Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, led the creation of the Wehrmacht.

Blomberg was intelligent, but unstable and highly influenced. At a time when cooperation between the Reichswehr and the Red Army was being established, he admitted that he had become "almost a Bolshevik." Under the influence of his chief of staff, Colonel von Reichenau , he just as easily became sympathetic.

Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg

zirovat the Nazi movement. Promoting the revival of Germany's military power, Blomberg aroused the displeasure of the highest army officials, who reproached him for being too "adapted" to the party. Blomberg prepared plans for the remilitarization of the Rhineland, for which Hitler, after the introduction of troops there, awarded him the rank of marshal (see Rhine demilitarized zone). At the same time, Blomberg feared Hitler's sharply adventurous course and the strengthening of the role of the Nazi Party's special services in Germany. von Rundstedt,expressing the opinion of the military, he characterized him as follows: “Blomberg has always been a bit of a stranger among us. He hovered in other empyreans. He came out of the Steiner school, a theosophical man, and to tell the truth, no one particularly liked him.” Blomberg was nicknamed the Puffy Lion.

On the eve of the bloody events of the Night of the Long Knives , a secret agreement was concluded between Hitler and Blomberg, in which Hitler gave assurances that the real command of the army would remain in the hands of the military, promised rapid and widespread rearmament, guaranteed that the army would be the only state body responsible for the defense of the country and having the right to bear arms.As for the supreme command of the army, in accordance with the Weimar constitution, it was assigned to the President of the Reich, but Hitler promised to give up specific command, agreeing that all laws relating to the army come into force only after they were signed by the President and the Minister of War.The announcement of this measure was published in the Völkischer BeobachterAugust 5, 1934. Only on these terms Blomberg agreed to sign the law proclaiming Hitler President of the Reich. This meant support for the coup d'état by the army.

After the events of the “bloody purge”, Blomberg approved the actions of the Nazis in an army order: “The Fuhrer went on the offensive and crushed the rebels with the determination of a soldier and exemplary courage. The army, as the only armed force of the entire nation, remaining aloof from the internal political struggle, testifies to him of its gratitude, showing devotion and loyalty.

On August 2, after the announcement of the death of Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, Hitler arranged for the army to take a new oath of allegiance to the Führer personally. On the same day, Blomberg addressed the army with an order that read: “We will give all our strength, and if necessary, even our lives, to the service of the new Germany. The doors to this new Germany were opened for us by Field Marshal [Hindenburg], who thereby realized the will of the people, generated by many centuries of German victories. Keeping the memories of this heroic personality, we will go into the future full of faith in the German Führer Adolf Hitler.”

In response, Hitler sent a letter of thanks to Blomberg: “I have always considered it my highest duty to protect the existence and integrity of the army. I will follow the will of the deceased marshal and will be true to myself in striving to make the Reichswehr the sole armed force of the nation.”

On June 24, 1937, Blomberg prepared a report on the international situation containing the arguments of the opponents of the aggressive policy that Hitler was preparing. “The general political situation,” the report said, “justifies the assumption that Germany is not in danger of being attacked by anyone. The reason for this, in addition to the lack of desire to commit aggression on the part of almost all countries, especially Western powers, lies in the poor preparedness for war of many states, including Russia. "Hitler did not like these conclusions, which contradicted his plans, which led to the resignation of Blomberg in February 1938, as a result of a carefully planned com - promotion of him and the commander-in-chief of the ground forces, General Werner von Fritsch (see the Blomberg-Fritsch case).

After the defeat of Nazi Germany, Blomberg, as one of the leaders and organizers of the Wehrmacht, was brought to trial by the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg. He died in prison during the investigation.

Blomberg-Frič, work

A carefully planned action by the Nazi secret services to discredit and remove from their posts two top army commanders - Field Marshal von Blomberg and Colonel General Fritsch, which allowed Hitler to completely concentrate power over the armed forces in his hands.

It all started on January 12, 1938, when German newspapers reported that Field Marshal von Blomberg, Minister of War, had married Fraulein Eva Grun, aged 24, in Berlin. Witnesses at the wedding were Adolf Hitler and Hermann Goering. The ceremony was held very modestly in an intimate setting, without a church wedding, which was normal for that time: the church was attacked by the party. Another thing was surprising: newspapers did not 

posted a single photo and did not give any comments, despite the rank of the newlyweds.

The 60-year-old widower von Blomberg already had adult children from his first marriage. One of his daughters married the son of General Wilhelm Keitel, but almost nothing was known about the newlywed; they only said that she came from a very modest family. When the head of the Berlin police, Count Wolf Heinrich von Helldorf , conducted a secret investigation into the identity of the young wife of the Minister of War, he could hardly believe the data collected by the dossier.

Eva Grun was born in 1914 in Neukölln, a working-class suburb of Berlin, and from a young age was engaged in prostitution—she was detained several times by the police of seven German cities, according to documents. She had problems with justice even after the Nazis came to power: she was arrested for repeatedly posing for pornographic postcards. Finally, the Berlin police had Eva Grun's fingerprints in connection with a theft case with which she was also accused.

General von Blomberg, Goering, General von Fritsch, Hitler and Admiral Raeder at Party Day 1935

Almost going crazy with his discoveries, Gelldorf informed General Keitel, the closest collaborator, friend and almost relative of von Blomberg, about them, hoping that he would warn the Minister of War of the danger that threatened him. But Keitel evaded and directed Gelldorf to Goering. Göring seemed genuinely distressed and promised Gelldorf to take the necessary steps. On January 24, he met Hitler, who had returned from Munich, and told him everything. Hitler, as usual, was indignant and decided that the marriage should be annulled immediately. On the advice of Goering, Hitler forbade von Blomberg to appear in the office and put on a military uniform. But Goering, having reported all the details to von Blomberg, went further and changed the Fuhrer's instructions somewhat, declaring to the marshal that he should immediately leave for a long time abroad. Shocked,

When this sensational news spread in the highest military circles, many questions arose. How could the police allow this wedding, knowing about the bride's past? How could Hitler be a witness to it? Who set up a young and pretty prostitute for the naive old minister?

All these questions could well have been answered by Himmler, Heydrich and Müller, who knew Eva Grun for a very long time and deliberately arranged a “leak” of information at the right time.

Von Blomberg left for Italy, clearing the way for Goering, who already saw himself in the role of Minister of War, and for Himmler, who aspired to join Hitler's inner circle. They had to overcome the last obstacle in the person of Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch, the commander-in-chief of the ground forces, the second person in the military hierarchy after von Blomberg and his possible successor. Von Fritsch, very popular in the army, was proposed by Hitler to replace Blomberg, but Goering and Himmler immediately reminded the Fuhrer of an incident hushed up in 1935, and brought a dossier of this dirty story.

Fritsch was allegedly convicted of a homosexual affair at the Potsdam railway station with a certain lustful young man and charged under Article 175 of the Criminal Code. The accusation was successfully fabricated: the old bachelor Fritsch was very vulnerable from this point of view, he diligently avoided communication with women. Shocked and offended, Fritsch vehemently denied the allegations. The officers' court of honor acquitted Fritsch "for lack of evidence of guilt." In fact, Fritsch could not be forgiven for his opposition to Hitler during the Hossbach Conference on November 5, 1937, at which Hitler presented to the generals his aggressive plans to achieve "living space" (febenzgait)with the help of force. Although Fritsch's personal honor was protected, his career ended. On February 4, 1938, Hitler sent him a cold letter of resignation. In his place was appointed General Walther von Brauchych, Chief of Staff of the Ground Forces.

August 11, 1938 von Fritsch was publicly rehabilitated. Preferring to remain in Germany, he turned down offers to serve as a military adviser in Spain or South America. In August 1939, on the eve of the outbreak of World War II, he was again appointed commander of his old 12th artillery regiment stationed in East Prussia. September 22, 1939 he died on the outskirts of Warsaw. Many of his colleagues said that it seemed that von Fritsch was specifically looking for death for himself.

With the removal of von Blomberg and von Fritsch, Hitler became the sole master of the German armed forces, removing the last major obstacle to his own aggressive plans.

The finale of this story was a decree signed by Hitler on February 4, 1938: “From now on, I take direct and personal command of all armed forces.” This decree gave Hitler such power that no German leader had before him, even Bismarck and Wilhelm II.

Blondie

An East European (Alsatian) Shepherd Dog, to which Hitler was unusually attached and which he took with him from the Berghof to Berlin on the eve of the collapse of the Third Reich. On the morning of April 30, 1945, on the eve of his suicide, Hitler ordered the death of Blondy.

“Blubo”

An abbreviation of the German expression "blut und boden" - "Blood and soil". This is how the German creative intelligentsia caustically called the fiction of the “blood and soil” movement. The same expression was used of the government building on Briennerstrasse in Munich, which was rebuilt and equipped to suit the Fuehrer's tastes.

“Blumenkrige”

("Vitepkgiede" - "Flower Wars"), a term used by Dr. Goebbels to describe the capture of Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938. "Not bullets, but flowers met our soldiers," Goebbels declared as German soldiers marched through the streets of Vienna and Prague.The implication was that these were not real wars worthy of German military power.Hitler won his "flower wars" using traitors in these countries and threats.Arthur Seyss-Inquart and Konrad Henlein served as models for future Vidkun puppet regimes Quisling and Pierre Laval.

Blumentritt, Gunther

(Vitepіgіy), general of the German army. Born February 10, 1892 in Munich. He began his army career in 1911 in the 71st Infantry Regiment. In 1938 he was promoted to colonel and became head of the training department of the General Staff. Managed the development of operations 

for General Gerd von Rundstedt, presented plans for Operation Weiss (invasion of Poland). In 1939-40 he commanded Army Group "South", in 1940-42 he was chief of staff here. In June 1941, during the attack on the Soviet Union, Blumentritt was the chief of staff of the 4th Army.

In December 1944, Blumentritt, with Field Marshal Walter Model, General Hasso von Manteuffel and SS General Sepp Dietrich , tried to convince Hitler to start negotiations in order to end the war, but to no avail. In early 1945, on the eve of the defeat of the Third Reich, Hitler appointed Blumentritt as commander of the 1st Airborne Army (Blumentritt's Army) on the Western Front.

In 1952, Blumentritt published a book of memoirs about his commander: Von Rundstedt, Soldier and Man, in which he spoke of the extreme decline in morale among the army's elite during the Russian campaign. At the same time, Blumentritt admired the fighting qualities of Russian soldiers and Russian T-34 tanks - “a terrible weapon that had such powerful armor that German anti-tank shells simply bounced off them.” He mentions the despair that gripped everyone with the onset of winter, “and winter clothes were not at hand,” and before him appeared the ghost of the Napoleonic army, which was also marching on Moscow. He argued that "Hitler's instinctive order not to retreat was motivated by the fact that retreating to unprepared positions in the open space of Russia was tantamount to suicide."

“Bluth und Boden”

(“VІii ips! Wobep” - “Blood and soil”), a Nazi leitmotif of common blood and soil, reflecting the hostile anti-urbanist orientation of the Nazi movement at the initial stage. Hitler emphasized the idea of ​​a land-oriented socialism that would unite urban workers with peasants. Good German Aryan students were expected to fulfill their patriotic duty in the form of agricultural work. See also "Blubo".

Bluetooth

("VІііogbep" - "Order of Blood"), the highest Nazi award. Established in 1933. It was awarded to 1,500 Nazis who took part in the "Beer Putsch" of 1923 in Munich. Worn on the right lapel. It was made of silver, fastened to a red ribbon with a white border. The Order of Blood was awarded, for example, to Wilhelm Frick.

The ceremony of consecrating the Nazi banners by touching the NSDAP shrine, the Nazi banner shot through and bloodied during the “Beer putsch” (to the “Blutfana” station)

“Blutfane”

("VІiDabpe" - "Blood Banner"), a special Nazi flag used in ritual ceremonies. He was sprinkled with the blood of the Nazi "martyrs" who died during a clash with the police during the "Beer Putsch" of 1923 in Munich. At the annual Nuremberg party congresses , Hitler consecrated the new party banners, touching them with one hand, holding the “Blood Banner” pierced by bullets in the other hand.

Bluetooth

(“ВІіізсііапсіе” — “Incest”), a synonym for “incest” rooted in Nazi propaganda. Hitler used the term to refer to the violation of the natural laws of racial purity by intermarried Germans. In Mein Kampf, Hitler sharply criticized “the racial conglomerate [Vienna], where a mixture of different peoples took place: Czechs, Poles, Hungarians, Ruthenians, Serbs, Croats, and above all the decaying mold [Zraііріх] of Jewish humanity and once again Jews . For me, the big city seems to be the personification of incest,” wrote Hitler.

Blucher

(“Vijsbeg”), the code name for the proposed offensive from the Crimea to the Caucasus by the 11th German army. In a directive dated July 11, 1942, Hitler ordered preparations for a military invasion of the Caucasian coast, expecting to complete the Russian campaign by the end of 1942.

Boger, Wilhelm

(Vodeg), SS man, Auschwitz guard. Born December 19, 1906 in Stuttgart in the family of a merchant. Participated in the Nazi youth movement, which later took shape in the Hitler Youth. In 1929 he joined the Nazi Party and the SA. In early 1933 he became a member of the SS, performed various police functions. After the outbreak of World War II, Boger was sent to the front, where in March 1942 he was wounded. In December 1942 he was appointed to the Auschwitz camp Gestapo, where he led the so-called. "Department of escapes" and considered it a personal merit that there were far fewer escapes from Auschwitz than from other camps. He remained in this post until the evacuation of the camp, having managed to get the nickname "camp devil".

On June 19, 1945, Boger was arrested by the American military police, as a result of which he avoided extradition to the Polish authorities. On October 8, 1958, he was again arrested and brought to trial for crimes committed at Auschwitz (see Frankfurt Trial). The court found him guilty of killing 144 prisoners and complicity in the murder of at least 1000 people, as well as torturing and ill-treating prisoners. The final verdict of the court read: "life imprisonment and an additional 5 years of hard labor."

Beumler, Alfred

(Vaitieg), German philosopher, one of the ideologists of Nazism. Born in 1887. In 1933-35 professor of political pedagogy at the University of Berlin. Beumler's views were formed under the influence of the "philosophy of life" (Nietzsche, Dilthey, Simmel) and the "morphology of history" by Oswald Spengler. Beimler is characterized by the motives of anti-urbanism and longing for "pre-bourgeois culture" with its "strong personality" standing "beyond good and evil." The works “Nietzsche as a political educator” (1931) and “Politics and education” (1937) written from these Nietzschean positions were recognized in Nazi Germany as a guide for the education of young people. In the essay "Aesthetics" (1934), Bäumler subjected the so-called. cultural criticism is the legacy of German classical philosophy.

Bock, Fedor von

(Wax), (1880-1945), Field Marshal of the Armed Forces of Nazi Germany (1940). Born December 3, 1880 in the ancient fortress town of Küstrin, Brandenburg, in 

family of the famous Prussian general Moritz von Bock. The upbringing received in the family made the army service the main goal of his life. After graduating from the Potsdam Cadet Corps, von Bock was sent to the 5th Potsdam Infantry Regiment in 1898. In 1904 he became a battalion adjutant, and in 1906 a regimental adjutant. After graduating from the Potsdam Military Academy, von Bock became an officer of the General Staff in 1912. Participated in the 1st World War, commanded an infantry battalion of the 4th Prussian regiment. In 1917, for personal courage shown in the battle of the Somme, he was awarded the medal "For Merit" ("Roig Іe Megііe").Subsequently, von Bock served as a senior officer of the General Staff in the 20th Infantry Division stationed in Southern Germany, which was considered one of the best divisions of the German army. Von Bock's extreme ambition and arrogance, his focus solely on official duties, absolute seriousness and lack of humor caused him a negative attitude from others.

Field Marshal Fedor von Bock

staff officers, but he himself took it for granted.

After World War I, von Bock was a member of the armistice commission in 1918, then served in the Reichswehr, on the staff of the commander-in-chief of the ground forces, General Hans von Seekt. Von Bock was one of the organizers of the so-called. “Black Reichswehr” - illegal military formations whose goal was to overthrow the Weimar Republic and restore the monarchy in Germany. After the uprising of the “Black Reichswehr” in September 1923 and its subsequent suppression by government troops, von Bock appeared in court as a witness, but due to lack of evidence guilt is released.

Von Bock's service career developed very successfully. From 1925 he commanded the 3rd Army Group, in 1925-26 - an officer in the Ministry of Defense, in 1928 - commander of the 1st Cavalry Division, in 1930 - commander of the 1st Infantry Division in Vost. Prussia, in 1931-35 - commander of the 12th military district in Stettin. By the time Hitler came to power, von Bock held the rank of infantry general. Not being a Nazi, von Bock nevertheless fully supported Hitler's militaristic policies. On March 1, 1938, he was promoted to the rank of full general (General Oberst) and entrusted with the command of the 8th Army during the Anschluss of Austria, and then the 2nd Army Group during the occupation of the Sudetenland.

By the beginning of the 2nd World War, von Bock was the third in rank among the senior officers of the German armed forces. Commanding Army Group North during the Polish campaign of 1939, he devastated the Polish Corridor and reached Brest-Litovsk, where his troops met with units of the Red Army. From October 5, 1939 to September 12, 1940, he led Army Group B in the French campaign. On July 19, 1940, on the eve of the surrender of France, Hitler awarded von Bock, along with eleven other senior officers of the Reich, the rank of Field Marshal.

Although von Bock did not support the idea of ​​invading the Soviet Union, it was to him that Hitler entrusted the command of Army Group Center during the preparation and beginning of the German attack on the USSR (he was in this post from April 1 to December 18, 1941). Von Bock's armies with HermannGoth and Heinz Guderian 's tank groups leading the waywon one victory after another. In the Battle of Smolensk alone, more than 300,000 Soviet soldiers were taken prisoner, more than 3,200 tanks and about 3,100 guns were captured and destroyed. By the end of August 1941, the losses of Army Group Center amounted to about 100 thousand people killed and wounded, while the losses of the Soviet troops opposing it were approaching 750 thousand people. At the moment when the road to Moscow was open, Hitler unexpectedly shifted the center of gravity of the offensive to Leningrad and Kyiv, taking from von Bock, despite his protests, four of the five tank corps and three infantry corps. Von Bock had no choice but to go on the defensive, as the fresh forces of the Red Army began furious attacks on the Elnin ledge, which von Bock could not hold. In other sectors of the front, the one and a half million Army Group Center managed to hold its ground. After the fall of Kyiv, the center"Blitzkrieg" again shifted to the Moscow direction. Having defeated 81 divisions of the Red Army in the battle near Vyazma, von Bock captured over 600 thousand Soviet soldiers from September 30 to October 17. But the fierce resistance of the enemy and the beginning of heavy rains stopped the advance of Army Group Center. The battle-weary troops of von Bock, who launched the last desperate offensive on November 14, were never destined to take Moscow. The powerful counter-offensive of the Red Army, which began on December 6, put Army Group Center in danger of annihilation. Von Bock did not find anything better than to complain to Hitler about an exacerbation of a stomach ulcer through the Fuhrer's personal adjutant Rudolf Schmundt. An enraged Hitler removed von Bock from command, appointing Field Marshal Günther von Kluge in his place.

From January 16 to July 15, 1942, von Bock commanded Army Group South, but he failed to achieve the goals set by Hitler - to prepare a springboard for striking at Stalingrad and the Caucasus, although he won a major victory in the battle of Kharkov. Hitler, having removed von Bock from the post of commander, sent him at the disposal of the headquarters and subsequently did not involve him in serious work.

In early May 1945, when the Soviet troops had already occupied Berlin and Hitler had committed suicide, von Bock received a telegram from Manstein informing him that Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz had formed a new government. Von Bock immediately left for Hamburg, but on the way his car was fired upon by a British aircraft, as a result of which he himself and his wife and daughter who were with him were killed. This happened on May 4, 1945.

Boxheim Papers

Developed by the Nazis in 1931 in the town of Boxheim, near Worms, a plan to seize local authorities. The documents were signed by Werner Best, the future Reichskommissar for occupied Denmark. The plan was to seize power after some hypothetical communist revolution, thwarted in street battles. The Nazi Party intended to destroy anyone who dared to contradict the new government. Hitler, preoccupied at that time with obtaining funds from the Rhineland industrialists and declaring that he intended to fight for power only by legal means, publicly denied involvement in the development of the Boxheim documents.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich

(VopboeNeg), (1906-1945), German theologian, executed by the Nazis in the Flossenbürg concentration camp. Born February 4, 1906 in Breslau 

the family of the famous physician and university lecturer Karl Bonhoeffer. He studied at the theological faculties of Tübingen (1923) and Berlin (1924), received a degree in theology in 1927. In 1930 he went to the USA, where he studied at the United Theological Seminary. Returning to his homeland, he began teaching at the theological faculty of the University of Berlin. In October 1933, when it became clear that Hitler intended to use the German church for his own purposes, Bonhoeffer left for London, becoming a member of the English pastorate. Refusing to recognize the public church, which became an instrument of Hitler's politics, Bonhoeffer supported the creation of the Confessional Church (see Beckentniskirche)and, having enlisted the support of many Anglican communities, he returned to Germany to take part in the activities of the Confessional Church. He wrote a book in which he substantiated the morality of the fight against the Nazi regime and took part in a conspiracy to overthrow Hitler. In 1938, Bonhoeffer came into contact with Major General Hans Oster, Chief of Staff of the Abwehr, Colonel General Ludwig Beck, who had just been dismissed from his post as Chief of the General Staff of the Ground Forces, and the head of the Abwehr, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris.Bonhoeffer became a double agent for the Canaris counterintelligence service and a courier for communications with foreign organizations in Sweden and Switzerland. On March 19, 1939, he went to London to meet with Bishop George Bell, Reinhold Niebuhr, and Gerhard Leibholz, and the next month he went to the USA. Visiting Sweden in 1942, he brought proposals from the conspirators for peace negotiations with the Allies. He helped seven Jews escape to Switzerland, which nearly cost him his life. On January 17, 1943, his engagement to Maria von Wedemeyer was announced, but on April 5 he was arrested, sent to Tegel Prison and charged with "undermining the armed forces." After the failed July plot of 1944, Bonhoeffer ended up in the basements of the Gestapoon the Prinz Albrechtstrasse. On February 7, 1945, he was sent to Buchenwald, and then transferred to the Flossenbürg camp. All those who communicated with him these days were delighted with his noble behavior and good spirits in inhuman conditions, in which he even managed to write poetry. By the verdict of a military tribunal, Bonhoeffer was executed on April 9, 1945 in Flossenbürg, a few days before the end of hostilities in Europe. In church circles, Bonhoeffer's name has become synonymous with martyrdom.

Bonhoeffer, Klaus

(VopboeTTeg), (1901-1945), German lawyer, member of the Resistance movement, brother of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and son-in-law of Hans von Donagny, who took part in the conspiracy against Hitler. Born January 5, 1901 in Breslau. He began his legal practice in 1930, later, in 1936, he became a legal adviser to Lufthansa. From the very beginning of his career, he considered the Nazi regime a disgrace to Germany, which forced him to cooperate with some groups in the resistance movement. He was arrested and on February 2, 1945, appeared before the People's Tribunal, which found him guilty of high treason. On the night of April 22-23, 1945, on the very eve of the entry of Soviet troops into Berlin, Bonhoeffer was shot by the SS.

Bormann, Martin

(Vogtapp), (1900-1945?), Reichsleiter, chief of staff of the Deputy Fuhrer, personal secretary and closest ally of Hitler, who by the end of the war became the most powerful man in the Third Reich after the Fuhrer. Born June 17, 1900 in Halberstadt in the family of a sergeant in a cavalry regiment. Without graduating from high school, he worked on the estate in Mecklenburg. At the end of World War I, he was drafted into the army and served in the 55th Field Artillery Regiment. After the war he returned to agriculture, worked as a local inspector. At the same time, he joined the ultra-right association of the Volunteer Corps, the Mecklenburg group

Martin Bormann

Rossbach (see Rossbach group), whose goal was "to help liberate Germany from the traitors who stabbed her in the back." Together with Rudolf Franz Höss, the future commandant of Auschwitz, Bormann participated in the murder of Walter Kadow, his former elementary school teacher, falsely accused of having betrayed Albert Leo Schlageter, later elevated by Nazi propaganda to the rank of “martyr”, to the French authorities during the occupation of the Ruhr. In March 1924, Höss was sentenced to 10 years in prison, and Bormann, as an accomplice in the crime, got off with a year in a Leipzig prison. After his release, he joined the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany.

Stubbornly climbing the Nazi hierarchy, Bormann in 1937 became the press secretary of the NSDAP in Thuringia. The following year, already a Gauleiter, he was appointed party manager for Thuringia and at the same time a member of the SD High Command. Back in 1929, Bormann married Gerda Buch, the daughter of a Reichstag deputy, who was highly valued by Hitler. To please her husband, she became a fanatical adherent of the National Socialist ideology. Hitler was a witness at their wedding. Gerda gave birth to 10 children, naming the firstborn Adolf in honor of the godfather. In 1930, Bormann headed the HIIT-Zkazze Foundation, which he created to help his party comrades who were injured in bloody street fights with the Communists.

Hundred chancellor, Hitler appointed Bormann chief of staff of his deputy Rudolf Hess. In October 1934, Bormann became a Reichsleiter, in addition, he was a member of the Reichstag from the Nazi Party. Being a major specialist in intrigue and political struggle, Bormann was clearly aiming for a very high position in the Third Reich. He managed Hitler's financial affairs and was the head, and in fact the owner, of the huge Hitler fund (see Adolf Hitler fund), which, as you might guess, consisted of tax deductions from industry. By order of the Fuhrer, Bormann acquired the house in Braunau an der Inn , where Hitler was born, the house of his parents in Leonding, as well as a whole complex of private properties in the Obersalzberg (see Berghof).

During World War II, Bormann became Hitler's closest ally. On May 12, 1941, two days after Hess flew to England (see Hess's flight), Hitler appointed Bormann his deputy for the NSDAP and head of the newly created party office. In this post, Bormann spared no effort to strengthen the party both against the Wehrmacht and against the SS, in addition, he still found time to keep an eye on attacks on Christianity. Possessing an amazing capacity for work, he wrote hundreds of memos on how to deal with Jews, Slavs, prisoners of war and how to behave Gauleiters.

On April 12, 1943, Bormann added one more title to his titles - the Fuhrer's secretary.

Party comrades nicknamed Bormann "Grey Eminence", "Iron Chancellor"; his enemies called him "Machiavelli at the office table." He really was a force in the shadow of Hitler's throne. Beneath his detached exterior was a classic schemer, a powerful watcher who worked in secret and outsmarted all his rivals who sought to win favor.

nie Fuhrer. Contemporaries described him as a small, squat man in an ill-fitting bureaucratic uniform with a briefcase under his arm, always working for his own interests.

Once a high school dropout just before graduation, this man gained almost absolute power in the Third Reich. When others betrayed, Bormann remained loyal to the Fuhrer, and he said about him: "My most devoted comrade-in-arms." Already isolated and defeated, the Fuhrer had contact with the outside world only through Bormann. The faithful paladin signed the Fuhrer's political testament. He was a witness at the marriage ceremony of Hitler and Eva Braun. In one of his last decrees, Hitler appointed Bormann as party minister in the government. Bormann witnessed how flames devoured Hitler's body in the courtyard of the Reich Chancellery. For several hours he tried to negotiate with the Allies, but to no avail. Then he disappeared from the Fuhrerbunker.

The further fate of Bormann is still shrouded in mystery. Some eyewitnesses testify that on the evening of April 30, 1945, when the corpses of Hitler and Eva Braun were still burning in the courtyard of the Reich Chancellery, Bormann was seen among the surviving inhabitants of the bunker who got out, hoping to seep, taking advantage of the darkness, through the battle formations of the Russians. He had just sent a telegram to Admiral Karl Dönitz announcing his forthcoming arrival, apparently retaining the hope of finding himself a place among the members of the new government. Some claim that Bormann died while trying to cross the line of the Russian forward detachments. According to Erich/Sempka , Hitler's chauffeur, Bormann was killed by a shell that exploded nearby. And according to Obergebitsführer Arthur Axman,head of the Hitler Youth Union, Bormann committed suicide by swallowing a capsule of potassium cyanide after it became clear that it would not be possible to get through the Russian order. With such a discrepancy in the testimony of witnesses, it is difficult to consider the death of Bormann proven.

In 1946, the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg tried Bormann in absentia and sentenced him to death (see the Nuremberg Trials).Since then, it has been repeatedly reported that Bormann was seen in different places on the globe. In 1947, he was allegedly met in the North. Italy, where he was granted asylum in one of the monasteries. An SS man, who himself had been hiding in Lombardy for more than two years, claimed that Bormann died in this monastery, and even indicated the approximate place of his burial. The investigation carried out yielded no results. Some testified that they met him in the guise of a businessman in South America, a favorite haunt of Nazi fugitives. In 1973, the writer Ladislav Farago claimed that Bormann lived in Argentina and that he was allegedly a millionaire. There was evidence that he died of cancer in Chile ... Traces of this man were lost, and therefore in April 1973 a West German court officially declared Bormann dead based on the identification of the skeleton, dug near the Nazi bunker - between the Weidenhammer bridge and Lehrter station in Berlin. The court ordered all other allegedly available evidence to be annulled, and reports of alleged meetings with Bormann to be ignored in the future. However, SimonBezenthal, who headed the Vienna Documentation Center (Archive), expressed his disagreement: “Some doubts still remain as to whether the bones found in Berlin really belong to Bormann.”

Born, Max

(Vogn), (1882-1970), an outstanding German physicist, Nobel Prize winner. Born December 12, 1882 in Breslau. After receiving his doctorate, he lectured at the Berlin (1915), Frankfurt (1919) and Göttingen (1921) universities. With the coming of the Nazis to power, Born, being a Jew, was fired from Gettin in 1933.

Max Born

Gene University and was forced to move to England, where he was engaged in scientific research and taught at Cambridge. From 1936 to 1954 he was a professor at the University of Edinburgh, where he lectured on the theory of relativity developed by his closest friend Albert Einstein. Being engaged in theoretical physics, Born made a huge contribution to many scientific discoveries and, above all, to the mathematical description of the foundations of matter. In 1954, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for outstanding scientific achievements. After the end of World War II, a few years before his death, he returned to Germany. Born died on January 5, 1970 in Bad Pyrmont.

Marriage, Victor

(Vgask), (1904-1948), Reichsleiter, Nazi official, worked in the Reich Chancellery. Born November 9, 1904 in Haaren. Joining the NSDAP, he advanced to the rank of SS Standartenführer (Colonel) and Reichsleiter of the Nazi Party. He was engaged in the construction of "death camps" in Poland. An American military tribunal sentenced Braque to death. He was hanged in Landsberg Prison on June 2, 1948.

Brand, Joel Jenier

(Bganb), (1906-1964), head of the Hungarian Jewish Relief Committee. In vain he tried to carry out a large-scale action to free the Jews by exchanging them for trucks. Originally from Romania, later moved to Erfurt. In 1933 he was arrested for participation in the political activities of the left forces, but released in September 1934. Having fled from Nazi Germany, he moved to Transylvania, then to Budapest. In 1938 he took part in the activities of a semi-legal organization that provided assistance to Jewish refugees through secret contacts with Nazi agents in Hungary. May 17, 1944 by order of Adolf Eichmannhe went to neutral Turkey with an offer to a local Jewish organization: Eichmann agreed to prevent the extradition of Hungarian Jews destined for extermination camps in exchange for a huge shipment of trucks and other equipment badly needed by Germany. Brand was arrested in Aleppo (Syria) by the British, who considered him a Nazi agent. He was transferred to Cairo, then to Jerusalem, and was finally released on October 7, 1944. His mission never materialized. Thousands of Hungarian Jews were sent to the Auschwitz gas chambers .

After the war, Brand took part in the search and capture of Nazi war criminals. In 1961, as a prosecution witness, he testified against Eichmann at a trial in Jerusalem.

Brandt, Willy

(Vgapbі), (present, name and surname Herbert Karl Fram), statesman of the Federal Republic of Germany. Born December 18, 1913 in Lübeck. After graduating from the gymnasium, he was an employee of a newspaper in Lübeck. In his youth, he participated in the social democratic youth movement and in street fights with the Nazis. In 1930 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany. In 1933 he emigrated to Norway, then to Sweden (1940), where he was engaged in journalistic activities. Several times secretly 

came to Nazi Germany. In 1945 he returned to West Germany. In 1957, 66 was mayor of West Berlin. In 1965 Brandt was elected chairman of the German Socialist Party. In 1966 he became Minister of Foreign Affairs and Vice-Chancellor, and in 1969 - Chancellor. He did a lot to transform West Germany into a democratic society. In 1971 Brandt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. He left his post in 1974 when charges were brought against him for assisting the East German secret services.

Brandt, Carl

(Vgapsii), (1904-1948), Reich Commissioner for Health and Hitler's personal physician. Brandt first met Hitler in August 1933, when he was called to Upper Bavaria to assist Hitler's niece and his adjutant Wilhelm Brückner, who were injured in a car accident. Brandt's doctoral skills proved so convincing that he was invited to become the Fuehrer's personal physician. By 1934, Brandt had become a permanent member of the Obersalzberg Circle (see Berghof). He was promoted to the rank of Major General of the SS and, despite relatively little experience, Brandt was appointed Reich Commissioner for Health and Sanitation. It was he who warned Hitler that the overly large doses of drugs and vitamins that Dr. Theodor Morell administered to the Fuhrer,may lead to irreparable results. Hitler did not heed Brandt's fears.

The Fuhrer favored Brandt for many years, but at the end of April 1945, shortly before his suicide, Hitler learned that Brandt had left his wife and child in Thuringia, where they intended to wait for the Americans. The enraged Fuhrer fired Brandt and appointed a military tribunal consisting of Goebbels, the leader of the Hitler Youth Arthur Axmann and SS Major General Gottlob Berger, accusing Brandt of treason. Hitler even sent a letter to the tribunal, accusing Brandt of disbelief in victory and that he intended to use his wife to transfer secret documents to the Americans. Brandt was sentenced to death and kept for some time in a villa in the western part of Berlin. His wife was saved by Himmler, cheating justice and calling new witnesses.

Having somehow escaped the death penalty from Hitler, Dr. Brandt, however, did not escape the vigilance of the Allies. He was one of 23 SS doctors and scientists who appeared on December 9, 1946 before the American military tribunal No. 1 (see Doctors Trial). He refused the services of a lawyer and preferred to defend himself:

Prosecutor: Mr. Brandt, do you recognize as criminal medical experiments on people that took place without their consent?

Dr. Brandt: It depends on what kind of experiments you mean. In my opinion, the issue of consent plays an important role in the evaluation of the experiment as a whole - in fact, the annoying part of the experiments is qualified as criminal.

Prosecutor: In your opinion, were the freezing experiments dangerous?

Dr. Brandt: Yes. Since sometimes deaths occurred, they were undoubtedly dangerous experiments.

Dr. Brandt during the announcement of the death sentence

Judge Sebring: Was there an order that authorized or compelled nurses to choose methods involuntarily and use them in operations where the doctor knew that death would result in the subject, was there such an order?

Dr. Brandt: That's a difficult question, because everything depended on the clarity of the issued commands. If Himmler ordered Dr. X to direct certain experiments, then it is quite possible that this Dr. X was forced against his will to carry out such an order. If he refused, then of course he would be required to explain the refusal. In this case - and in this the authoritarian nature of our system of government must be taken into account - any personal code of ethics must give way to the totality of war.

The court was not satisfied with Dr. Brandt's explanations. He was sentenced to death by hanging. On the eve of his execution at Landsberg Prison, he offered his own body for medical experiments similar to those he directed, but his offer was rejected. Like six other doctors sentenced to death, he refused to confess. His last words were: “It's not a shame to go to this chopping block. This is just political revenge. I served my fatherland, like many before me...” The noose cut off his speech in mid-sentence. This happened on June 2, 1948.

Brown, Werner von

(Vgain), German scientist in the field of rocket science. Born March 23, 1912 in Wirzitz, now Wyzhysk, Poland. He studied at the Zurich and Berlin Institutes of Technology and at the University of Berlin. In 1932 he joined the German army. Since 1937, one of the leaders of the German military research center in Peenemünde. Brown's work was closely connected with the plans of the Nazi military command in the 2nd World War. Brown was the chief designer of the V-2 rocket, which was used to bombard the UK and the Netherlands. Since 1945 he lives and works in the USA. Since 1960 he has been director of the George Marshall Space Center in Alabama.

Brown, Eva

(Vgaip), (1912-1945), Hitler's mistress, who became his wife the day before their joint suicide. Born in Munich in the family of a school teacher. In her youth, she was an assistant to Heinrich Hoffmann, Hitler's personal photographer, who introduced them to each other. Tall, slender, with regular features, rather pretty than beautiful, she enjoys

Eva Braun and Adolf Hitler

She went in for sports, was fond of swimming, gymnastics, skiing and rock climbing. She was extremely fond of dancing, which she practiced professionally. Restrained, even shy, Eva Braun had little interest in politics, preferring to pay more attention to sports, reading novels and watching movies. The only goal in life was for her to be useful to her beloved Fuhrer.

After Geli Raubal 's suicideSeptember 18, 1931 Hitler was unlucky in relationships with women. He wanted to surround himself with beautiful women, but he was afraid of becoming too attached to one of them. “An intelligent man should have a primitive and stupid woman,” Hitler said. “Imagine if I had a woman who would interfere in my work.” He was frightened by the very thought of a woman participating in politics. For many years Propaganda Minister Goebbels unsuccessfully tried to win over the Fuhrer by introducing him to strikingly beautiful blondes with truly Nordic features. Instead, Hitler turned his attention to Eva Braun, the undemanding assistant photographer who chronicled the bourgeois world and Nazism. Hitler had absolute influence over her. Concerned about her health, he forbade her to fly or drive fast. He made her financially independent

Eva Braun fit perfectly into the alpine environment of Hitler's Berghofin Berchtesgaden. She was introduced here as the Fuhrer's mistress, but always kept in the shadows, fenced off by a wall of silence. The servants were forbidden to speak to her unless absolutely necessary. Although Eva Braun was part of the inner circle, she was sent to her apartments whenever important guests appeared. Very few in Germany knew of its existence. Hitler forbade her to appear in Berlin, only in the last 2 years of her life deviating from this ban. During the war, when the Fuhrer was at one of his headquarters for a long time, Eva Braun stayed at the Berghof, read, played sports, wrote letters, kept a diary and yearned. Her fate was sad to await the return of her master. At the same time, her suffering was so great that she tried several times to commit suicide.

April 15, 1945 Eva Braun arrived in Berlin to share the fate of Hitler. The Fuhrer sent her to Munich, but she refused. When he ordered her to leave the bunker, she again disobeyed. “Germany without Adolf Hitler is not habitable,” she once said. Before his death, Hitler decided to fulfill the cherished desire of Eva Braun: he agreed to marry her. The formalities were brief - on April 29, 1945, their marriage took place. Both declared that they were citizens of Aryan origin and did not have hereditary diseases. They shook hands with the guests and briefly attended the wedding breakfast. Hitler then retired to dictate his last will and political testament (see Hitler's political testament; Hitler's last will).The greatest moment in the life of Eva Braun came when, to the usual address of the servants “fraulein”, she replied: “Now you can confidently call me “Frau Hitler”. On the afternoon of April 30, about half past two, Eva Braun took poison and died next to her husband.

Eva Braun and Adolf Hitler at breakfast at the Berghof

Brown, Otto

(Vgaip), (1872-1955), statesman of the Weimar Republic, leader of the Social Democrats Born January 28, 1872 in Koenigsberg in the family of a poor regimental shoemaker, who later became a railway employee. In his youth, Brown organized his own printing house. He took part in the activities of the banned Social Democratic Party in East Prussia, of which he remained a member until the end of his life. In 1913 he became a member of the Prussian Landtag. In 1918 he headed the Prussian Ministry of Economics, and the following year became a member of the Weimar National Assembly. In 1920, Brown became minister-president of Prussia and stayed in this post with short breaks until 1933. After 1925, he led a coalition of social democrats, centrists, and democrats. In July 1932, as a result of the intrigues of Franz von Papenleft his post. In March 1932, Brown emigrated to Switzerland, where he spent the last two decades of his life. He never made any attempt to participate in the post-war reconstruction of Germany. Brown died December 14, 1955 in Lugano.

Brown, Otto

(Vgaip), leader of the German and international communist movement. Born September 28, 1900 in Ismaning, near Munich, in the family of an employee. In 1918 he joined the "Union of Spartak" Participated in the creation of the Bavarian Soviet Republic. In the 20s. was the secretary of the underground district committee of the KKE in Thuringia. He was arrested three times. In 1928, after escaping from the Moabit prison, he left for the USSR.

BraunaunaInne

(Vgaipai at Іpp), a small town on the German-Austrian border, in which Adolf Hitler was born.

"Browner cold"

(Braineg Basiep), a general store in Berlin that specialized in selling Nazi symbols and paraphernalia.

Braunschweig

(“Vgaipzsbѵveid”), the code name for Hitler's plan for the offensive in the Caucasus in the summer of 1942. The plan provided for the defeat of the enemy south of the Don and the advance along the coast in order to capture the Black Sea ports in order to deprive the Soviet Black Sea Fleet of the opportunity to conduct hostilities. Operation Braunschweig was preceded by Operation Blucher.

Braunsteiner, Hermione

(Vgainzieipeg), (1920-?), Nazi, guard of the "death camps" during the 2nd World War. Born in 1920. In 1941-42 she was a matron in Ra~ Wensbrück, and in 1943 in Majdanek.

In 1949, an Austrian criminal court sentenced her to 3 years in prison on charges of complicity in unmotivated murders. After her release, an Austrian civil court succeeded in canceling the amnesty for Braunsteiner, the case was sent for further investigation, and her term of detention was extended.

In 1959, Braunsteiner married an American electrical engineer, Russell Rai, and moved to the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1963. Here she was again charged with torturing and killing prisoners, that she personally sent women, old people and children to the gas chambers. Witnesses testified that the only selection criterion was her likes or dislikes. In her defense, Braunsteiner stated that she was only performing the usual duties of a security guard. Later it was issued to German justice.

Brauchitsch, Walter von

(VgaisIPzsb), (1881-1948), Field Marshal of the Nazi Army (1940). Born October 4, 1881 in Berlin in the family of an officer. In the army since 1900. Member of the 1st World War in staff positions, then served in the Reichswehr. In 1931 he was promoted to lieutenant general and commanded an artillery unit. From 1932 he was the inspector general of artillery, from 1933 he commanded the 1st military district in Königsberg, from 1935 the 1st army corps. Since 1937 the commander of the 4th Army Group. On February 4, 1938, after the dismissal of General Fritsch, he was appointed commander in chief of the ground forces.

From the very beginning, Brauchitsch was aware of the conspiracy of army officers against Hitler. Disapproving of Hitler's aggressive plans, he nevertheless obeyed the order, being bound by an oath of allegiance to the Fuhrer. Hoping to involve Brauchitsch among the conspirators, General Ludwig Beck, a key figure in the army opposition, repeatedly tried to influence him, and Brauchitsch had to rush between inner feelings and professional duty. In 1938 he divorced his wife and remarried the daughter of a prominent statesman from Silesia. Hitler ordered that Brauchitsch be given the necessary funds to settle the divorce cases. The second wife of Brauchitsch, a fanatical supporter of Hitler, forced her husband, who was already in awe of the Fuhrer, to finally take the side of the National Socialists. On the eve of the occupation of Czechoslovakia, Beck and other conspirators again tried to win Brauchitsch over to their side. At a meeting of the generals inBerghof Hitler gave a severe reprimand to those who refused to support his aggressive intentions. Shocked by the Fuhrer's outburst, Brauchitsch muttered: “I am a soldier. My duty is to obey” and agreed with Hitler’s position. Beck refused in disgust. Indirectly appearing in the plans of the conspirators, Brauchitsch never played an active role in the conspiracy itself.

Brauchitsch participated in the development and implementation of war plans against Poland, France, Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union. After the first successes of Hitler, he cringed more and more to the Fuhrer. The almost bloodless victory over France crossed out the last hopes of the conspirators that he would take the side of the opposition. By this time, Brauchitsch already automatically carried out Hitler's orders, even contrary to his own different opinion.

After the failure of the attack on Moscow, he was transferred to the reserve on December 19, 1941, according to the official version - for health reasons. From now on, the name of Brauchitsch was tarnished. Hearing of the failure of the July 1944 conspiracy , he publicly denounced the conspiracy. In 1945 he surrendered to the British. Brauchitsch died in a prisoner-of-war hospital in Hamburg on October 18, 1948.

Brouwer, Max

(Bräder), (1888-1973), German Social Democrat, mayor of Hamburg in 1924-33. With the rise of the Nazis to power, Brouwer was repeatedly persecuted and arrested by the authorities, but nevertheless refused to cooperate with the new regime. He was forced to leave Germany and moved to China, where he was a representative of the League of Nations, then settled in the United States. In 1946 he returned to his homeland and again took up the post of burgomaster of Hamburg. In 1961 he was elected to the Bundestag, and retired in 1965. Brouwer died on February 2, 1973 in Hamburg.

"Brennessel"

(“Oie VgeppezzeI” - “Stinging Nettle”), a humorous newspaper published by the Nazi Party.

Brecht, Berthold

(Vgesі), (1898-1956), one of the most popular German playwrights, poet, art theorist, director. Born February 10, 1898 in Augsburg in the family of a factory director. He studied at the medical faculty of the University of Munich. Even in his gymnasium years, he began to study the history of antiquity and literature. The author of a large number of plays that were successfully staged on the stage of many theaters in Germany and the world: “Baal”, “Drumbeat in the Night” (1922), “What is that soldier, what is that” (1927), “The Threepenny Opera” ( 1928), "Saying yes" and saying "no" (1930), "Horaces and Curiat" (1934) and many others. Developed the theory of "epic theater". In 1933, after Hitler came to power, Brecht emigrated; in 1933 -47 lived in Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, USA In exile he created a cycle of realistic scenes “Fear and Despair in the Third Reich” (1938), the drama “The Rifles of Teresa Carrar” (1937), the drama-parables “The Good Man from Sezuan” (1940), “The Career of Arturo Ui” (1941), “The Caucasian Chalk Circle” (1944), the historical dramas “Mother Courage and Her Children” ( 1939), “The Life of Galileo” (1939), etc. Returning to his homeland in 1948, he organized the theater “Berliner Ensemble” in Berlin. Brecht died in Berlin on August 14, 1956.

SS Brigadeführer

(VgіdasІepTieNgeg-28), a military rank in the SS, corresponding to the combined arms rank of major general.

Broad, Percy

(Vgoagі), guard of the Auschwitz camp. Born April 25, 1921 in Rio de Janeiro. His father was a Brazilian entrepreneur and his mother was German. Shortly after the birth of his son, his mother took him to Germany. In his youth, Broad was a member of the Titler Youth.” He studied at the Berlin Technical School. He volunteered to join the army, but not being a purebred Aryan, he was sent to guard the Auschwitz concentration camp. At the end of the war, Broad was arrested by the British, and on December 20, 1963, he appeared before a court in Frankfurt am Main on charges of implementing the "Final Solution" program (see Frankfurt Trial).Despite the fact that his direct participation in the destruction of about 1000 prisoners was proven, Broad was sentenced to only 4 years of hard labor.

Brüning, Heinrich

(Vgipіpd), (1885-1970), German politician of the period of the Weimar Republic,chancellor. Born November 26, 1885 in Münster, Westphalia. Studied philosophy and political sciences. In 1920-30 he held responsible positions in the Catholic Union of Trade Unions. In May 1924 he was elected to the Reichstag, where he took a prominent place in the faction of the Center party, and from 1929 became the leader of this faction. He was closely associated with the Vatican. March 28, 1930 Brüning was proclaimed Chancellor of Germany, formed a government that was the first of a series of transitional cabinets from the Weimar regime to Nazism. The Brüning government made extensive use of Art. 48 of the Weimar Constitution of 1919 to pass emergency anti-democratic laws, passed decrees to lower wages and introduce new taxes, persecuted anti-fascist workers' organizations and especially the Communist Party. In foreign policy, Brüning saw his main task in to buy time for the military strengthening of Germany. In February 1932, he headed the German delegation at the international Geneva Conference on Disarmament. May 30, 1932 German President Paul vonHindenburg sent Brüning a letter demanding his resignation. He was replaced in this post by von Papen. After Hitler came to power, Brüning retired from politics and emigrated to the United States in 1934.

Prisoners of the Buchenwald concentration camp after liberation. Many of the survivors were unable to even get up and lay listlessly in their barracks. Those who were still relatively healthy were supposed to help bury their comrades and clean up the camp in order to prevent the danger of an epidemic.

Returning to Cologne in 1951, he took up teaching. In 1954 he again left for the USA. Bruning died on March 30, 1970 in Norwick, Vermont.

Burshenshaft

(BurzsbepsMaTi), student fraternity (community) in German universities in the pre-Nazi era.

Bund Deutscher Medel

(VipsІ сіеізсііег MabeІ), see Union of German Girls.

Bund Oberland

(Vind Oleganb), a paramilitary patriotic organization of a nationalist persuasion in Munich in the early 1920s. It was one of the many formations of the "Volunteer Corps". The organization was headed by World War I veteran Dr. Friedrich Weber. The distinctive sign of this union was the edelweiss (Ger-Ianb - "mountainous area"). Members of the organization wore Bavarian mountain caps and high woolen socks. As part of the Fighting Union, many members of the Bund Oberland participated in the march through the streets of Munich during the “Beer Putsch” of 1923.

Buchenwald

(Visіiepvvaіsi), one of the largest Nazi concentration camps. Officially established in 1937 in the vicinity of Weimar, however, the first prisoners appeared here as early as 1933, when the camp was called Ottersberg. For 8 years, about 239 thousand people were prisoners of Buchenwald. Initially, these were German anti-fascists, later, during the 2nd World War, representatives of many other nationalities. Many prisoners died already during the construction of the camp, which was carried out without the use of mechanisms. The prisoners were also exploited by the owners of large industrial firms whose enterprises were located in the Buchenwald area (Siemens, Junkers, etc.). Especially many prisoners died in the Buchenwald branch - "Dora", where the V-airplanes were manufactured in underground workshops. The camp was liberated on April 10, 1945 by units of the 80th US Division.

Bush, Adolf

(Vizsi), (1891-1952), German violinist and conductor. Born August 8, 1891 in Siegen, Westphalia. Graduated from the Cologne Conservatory. From 1919 he led various musical groups. In Germany, a popular instrumental quartet led by Bush included his brother Hermann Busch (cello) and pianist Rudolf Zerkin. In 1933, Bush left Nazi Germany, went to Switzerland, and then settled in the United States, where he became known as an interpreter of classical music and a composer. He died June 9, 1952 in Brattleboro, Vermont.

Bush, Ernst von

(Vissiz), (1885-1945), Field Marshal of the German Army (1943). Born July 6, 1885 in Bochum.

Field Marshal Ernst von Busch

Member of the 1st World War, then served in the Reichswehr. Having taken the oath of allegiance to the Fuhrer, Bush began to quickly rise through the ranks. On February 2, 1938, after the reshuffle in the top army leadership as a result of the Blomberg-Fritsch affair , Bush was promoted to the rank of general of the army, and he was appointed commander of the 8th military district. Late 1938 Bush and Walther von Reichenauwere the only generals who supported Hitler's intention to invade Czechoslovakia. In 1939 he took part in the Polish campaign. From October 1939 he was commander of the 16th Army, which took part in the French campaign and later in the attack on the Soviet Union. Despite the fact that his army suffered heavy losses in 1942-43, Bush was awarded the rank of Field Marshal on February 1, 1943. From November 1943 he commanded Army Group Center, and after the defeat in Belarus in August 1944 he was transferred to the reserve. On March 20, 1945, he commanded a grouping of German troops in northwestern Germany, defending the coast of the North Sea and Schleswig-Holstein. He died July 17, 1945 in captivity in England.

Baer, ​​Heinrich

(Wag), (1913-1957), fighter pilot of the Luftwaffe. Born March 25, 1913 in Leipzig. He began his military service as a private. He shot down the first enemy aircraft in September 1939. At various times he served in the 51st, 71st, 1st and 3rd Fighter Aviation Regiments. He rose to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel (Oberstlieutenant). In total, he shot down 220 enemy aircraft, taking 9th place in the list of Luftwaffe aces. In terms of the number of British and American fighters shot down by him (124), he ranked first in the Luftwaffe statistics on the Western Front.

Buhler, Philip

(Bouyer), (1899-1945), Reichsleiter, chief of the party office, at the same time head of the “euthanasia program” (see Euthanasia) and chairman

Commissioner for the Protection of National Socialist Literature. Born September 11, 1899 in Munich. During the 1st World War he served as a volunteer and was seriously wounded. He worked in the Nazi newspaper “Völkischer Beobachter”, and from 1925 to 1934 he headed Hitler’s office. In June 1933, with the rank of SS Gruppenführer (lieutenant general), Buhler became Reichsleiter and Reichstag deputy from Westphalia. In 1934 he was appointed police president of Munich. In the book "Brilliant Napoleon - the luminous trail of a comet" Buhler drew a parallel between Napoleon and Hitler, exalting Hitler. However, the book was soon removed from sale due to an undesirable continuation of the parallel: a fatal defeat and an inglorious retreat from Russia. Buhler committed suicide in May 1945.

"Burgerbraukeller"

Beer hall in Munich, where on November 8, 1939 an assassination attempt was made on Hitler.

On the evening of November 8, Hitler delivered a speech to honor the memory, as was done every year, of the "heroes of November 9" - the victims of the failed "Beer Putsch" of 1923, which began in this beer hall. 10-12 minutes after his departure, a powerful explosion was heard , which half destroyed the hall, killing seven people and wounding 63. If Hitler had not left, he would have been killed, as the bomb was planted in the column near which he always stood when he made a speech.Nazi propaganda blamed an attempt on the English Intelligence Service and Otto Strasser's "Black Front" at the same time.

There are several facts that suggest that this explosion is nothing more than a provocation by the Nazi secret services. First, contrary to tradition, neither Himmler nor Goering were present at the gala. Secondly, Hitler's speech that day turned out to be unusually short, which had never been done before, and at the end of it he abruptly left, although he usually stayed to have a friendly conversation with the "old fighters." Thirdly, the bomb planted by cabinetmaker Elzer,was such a complex design with two duplicating - delayed action and electric - detonators that it is naive to talk about its handicraft production and installation. In addition, the security services that checked the hall before the Fuhrer's speech failed to detect it. And the last strange circumstance: arrested at the Swiss border and sent to Sachsenhausen, and then to Dachau , Elser was more than five years after the incident, in April 1945, was shot by the Gestapo on Himmler's personal secret orders, and his death was attributed to Allied bombing.

Burkel, Joseph

(WigskeI), (1895-1944), Nazi Reichskommissar in Austria. Born March 30, 1895 in Lingenfeld. Participated in the 1st World War. After the war he was a teacher, but most of his time he devoted to the fight against the French occupation of the Rhineland (see Rhine demilitarized zone). In 1925 he left the post of teacher, completely surrendering to the creation of Nazi organizations in his region. In the same year he became Gauleiter of the NSDAP in the Rhineland. Burkel founded his own newspaper , Yegh Eizepiatteg (Iron Hammer), which was banned several times by the authorities. In 1930 he became a member of the Reichstag from the Nazi Party of the Saarland. In 1934, replacing von Papen,became commissioner for the Saar region, and the following year, when the Saar again went to Germany, Burkel became his Reichskommissar. After the implementation of the Anschluss , Bürkel was appointed Gauleiter of Vienna and Reichsstathalter of Austria. He probably committed suicide on September 28, 1944.

Wagner, Adolf

(Vadpeg), Minister of the Interior of Bavaria. Born October 1, 1890 in Al-ringen (Algrange) in Lorraine. During World War I he was an officer. Early joining the Nazi movement, he was appointed Gauleiter of Upper Bavaria. In 1933 Wagner became Minister of the Interior and Deputy Head of Bavaria. He was a member of the Reichstag. In 1935 he joined the Fuhrer's personal headquarters in the "Brown House" in Munich. In 1936 Wagner was appointed Minister of Education and Culture of Bavaria. From September 1939 he was the Reich Commissar for Defense in the 7th and 13th military districts.

Wagner, Winifred

(Vadpeg), daughter-in-law of the composer Richard Wagner, wife of his son Siegfried. Close friend of Adolf Hitler. Born in England in 1894, she was the adopted daughter of a student of Franz Liszt, Karl Klindworth. In 1915 she married Siegfried Wagner, who was twenty-five years older than her. In the spring of 1923 she met Hitler, then an aspiring politician. Hitler was a frequent visitor to the Wagner home in Bayreuth, especially after the death in 1930 of Siegfried Wagner. There were rumors that he was going to marry Winifred. Thanks to Hitler, the annual Bayreuth Opera Festival, directed by Winifred, received constant financial support from the government.

Wagner, Wilhelm

Richard

(Vadpeg), (1813-1883), an outstanding German composer, conductor, music writer and theater figure. Born May 22, 1813 in Leipzig in a bureaucratic family. Music lessons began at the age of 15. In 1831 he entered the University of Leipzig. At the same time he took private lessons from T. Weinlig. From 1833 Wagner worked as a theater choirmaster in Würzburg, then as a conductor of musical theaters in Magdeburg (1834-36), Königsberg (1837), and Riga (1837-39). In 1939-42 he lived in Paris, where he created the first mature works: the overture Faust and the opera The Flying Dutchman. In 1843-49 he worked as a conductor at the court theater in Dresden; In the same place he wrote 2 operas: "Tannhäuser" and "Lohengrin". Member of the Dresden uprising of 1849, after the suppression of which he emigrated to Switzerland. In 1849-58 he lived mainly in Zurich. In 1852, Wagner completed the literary text of the opera tetralogy Der Ring des Nibelungen, based on the Scandinavian epic of the 8th-9th centuries. "Edda" and the German medieval epic of the 13th century. “Song of

4 Zak.1871

Richard Wagner

niya. The mission of Germany is to rid the world of the materialistic civilization of the French. This is not strictly a “national mission”, but rather a universal one: the whole world, and not just Germany alone, must be freed from such materialistic influence. This goal must be achieved with the help of national means ... The rays of German freedom and German kindness will bring light and warmth to the French, and the Cossacks, and the Bushmen, and the Chinese.

Wagner's racial ideas were borrowed from two non-German sources: the writings of the French sociologist and writer Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and the Englishman Houston Stuart Chamberlain. Wagner admired Gobineau's assertion that the Germans were probably the best nation among all the Aryans. Also, his

the Nibelungs." In 1852-56 he wrote the music for the first parts of the tetralogy: "The Rhine Gold" and "The Valkyrie". In 1857-59 he created the opera Tristan and Isolde (based on the epic story by Gottfried of Strasbourg). After a period of wandering (1859-64), Wagner, at the invitation of the Bavarian king Ludwig II, moved to Munich. Here, in 1868, his opera The Nuremberg Mastersingers (based on the Nuremberg Chronicle of the late 17th century) was staged; in 1871-74 he completed the last parts of the "Ring of the Nibelungs": "Siegfried" and "The Death of the Gods". The whole tetralogy was staged at the Bayreuth Theater (1876), built according to the design of Wagner. Wagner spent the last years of his life in Bayreuth, where in 1882 his mystery opera Parsifal (according to a medieval Christian legend) was staged. Wagner died on February 13, 1883 in Venice.

The work of Wagner and his worldview made a deep impression on Hitler. Much of the composer's literary and philosophical heritage resonated with Hitler's ideas about the great destiny of the German nation, called to rule the world.

The Germans, said Wagner, are destined for a great mission that other peoples have no idea about.

Hitler and Streicher (far right) at a production of Wagner's Die Meistersinger at the Munich Opera. The Fuhrer's presence is marked by his personal standard.

Winifred Wagner, Hitler, Mayor Goerdeler of Leipzig, Gauleiter Mutschmann and Goebbels at the Wagner Memorial in Leipzig, 1934

attracted the position of Chamberlain, who declared that the only way to destroy Jewish influence lies in Teutonic culture, that the Germans are the most civilized people on earth and that they have an indisputable right to be masters of the world. Wagner vehemently criticized Heinrich Heine, calling him "the conscience of Judaism, while Judaism is the diabolical conscience of modern civilization." In September 1850, Wagner published an article entitled “Judaism in Music” under the pseudonym K. Freygedank (Freethinker) in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik magazine, which caused fierce controversy, especially after the author’s real name became known. Many enthusiastically borrowed Wagner’s anti-Semitism to belittle the work of Mayerbeer and Mendelssohn.Others declared Wagner crazy.

For Hitler and the Nazi ideologues, Wagner was a true hero. His musical and literary work seemed to them the most expressive manifestation of the Great German national spirit. Hitler considered Wagner to be his spiritual teacher: "At every stage of my life I returned to Wagner." The closeness of the views of Hitler and Wagner is clearly visible if we compare some of their statements;

G condemnation

Wagner: In the state, society is obliged to sacrifice a part of its own egoism for the welfare of the majority. The immediate goal of the state is stability, the achievement of tranquility.

Hitler: The state is only a means to the end. Its highest aim is to take care of attaining those primitive racial elements which will create the beauty and dignity of a higher civilization.

People

Wagner: The people are those who think instinctively. The people behave unconsciously and, on this basis, naturally and instinctively.

Hitler: The dead mechanism [of the old state] must be replaced by a living organism based on the herd instinct that occurs when everyone becomes one blood.

Leader

Wagner: We must now find a future hero who will rise up against the destruction of his own race. Barbarossa-Siegfried will soon return to save the German people in their moment of deepest need.

Hitler: No one must forget: the majority will never replace the leader. It [the majority] is not only stupid, but also cowardly. Not a single wise man can be found among a hundred fools, and a hundred cowards will not make a heroic decision.

Jews

Wagner: The Jew is the flexible demon of the decadence of mankind.

Hitler: Jews are parasites on the body of our people; they create states within a state.

Democracy

Wagner: Democracy is not a German concept at all, but a concept borrowed from somewhere. Franco-Jewish-German democracy is a disgusting thing.

Hitler: Democracy is the rule of lunatics.

Weissenborn, Gunther

(Viseisenhorn), (1902-1969), German writer. Born July 10, 1902 in Velbert. Studied medicine and philology at the University of Bonn. In 1928 he published the anti-war play Submarine S-4. In 1931, together with Bertolt Brecht , he staged M. Gorky's novel "Mother". His novels, "The Girl from Fane" (1935) and "Fury" (1937), far from politics, which were published under the pseudonym of the drama "Neubersch" (1935), brought him success. In 1937 Weizenborn emigrated to the United States, but soon returned to Germany. During World War II, he became a member of the Resistance movement, a member of the Red Chapel. In 1942, Weisenborn was arrested by the Nazi authorities and sentenced to prison. Released by the Red Army in 1945.

Weiss

“Weiss” (РІІVѴеізв - “White Plan”), a plan of attack on Poland. The political decision to carry out the capture of Poland was made by Hitler in early 1939. On March 25, he informed the commander-in-chief of the ground forces, Walther von Brauchitsch, about this. On April 3, a directive was issued about Operation Weiss, about the readiness of the Wehrmacht to attack Poland by September 1, 1939. The commands of the branches of the armed forces were asked to submit their views by May 1. Brauchitsch did this already on April 26-27. On May 16, the corresponding order was given to the navy. Hitler confirmed his decision at a meeting of the generals on May 23. A directive on the strategic deployment of ground forces was approved on June 15. On June 22, Hitler was presented with a tentative calendar plan.

"Wallonia"

(VvaIIIopie), a volunteer infantry division of the SS troops, formed in 1945 from Walloons and Belgians. Capitulated to the Allied forces at the end of the war.

Waldeck-Pyrmont, Josias von

(Vvaigiesk-Rugtopi), SS Obergruppenführer. Born in 1896. He was the first of the old hereditary aristocracy whom Himmler managed to attract to the cooperation of the WSS. Waldeck-Pyrmont joined the Nazi movement in 1929. From 1939 he headed the Kassel-Mainfranken district police. On August 14, 1947, as former head of the Buchenwald concentration camp, Waldeck-Pyrmont was sentenced to life imprisonment in the Landsberg prison.

"Valkyrie"

The password, according to which it was planned to put the Reserve Army and other forces loyal to the conspirators on alert after the death of Hitler as a result of the assassination attempt on July 20, 1944.

The chief of staff of the Reserve Army, Colonel Klaus von Stauffenberg, who left a briefcase with a bomb at Hitler's headquarters in Rastenburg, without making sure whether Hitler died in the explosion or not, flew to Berlin and demanded from the commander of the Reserve

the army of Colonel-General Fritz Fromm to give the order "Valkyrie". However, Fromm, who did not believe in the death of the Fuhrer, called the headquarters and learned from Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel,that Hitler survived. In this situation, General Fromm decided to move away from the plot, although von Stauffenberg convinced him that Keitel was lying. Meanwhile, the conspirators, seeking to force events, ordered the implementation of the Valkyrie plan. All headquarters and district commanders in the Reich and occupied Europe were notified of Hitler's death. It was ordered to occupy administrative and military buildings, to arrest high-ranking SS officers and leaders of local NSDAP bodies. The commandant of the Berlin garrison instructed the commander of the security battalion, Major Otto Remer, to arrest the Gauleiter of Berlin and the Reich Minister of Propaganda Goebbels, who was in his residence. When Roemer arrived there, Goebbels connected with headquarters and handed over the telephone receiver to Major Roemer. The Fuhrer's voice was heard in the receiver: "Can you hear me?" Hitler personally ordered Remer to put down the coup, He praised him for his loyalty and immediately promoted him to colonel. After this conversation, Roemer led the countermeasures against the conspirators: he began to prepare an attack on the building of the War Ministry on Bendlerstrasse, ordered the radio station to be guarded, and so on.

On the evening of July 20, the Valkyrie order was also sent to the Paris center of the conspirators. According to the plan, Field Marshal Hans Günther von Kluge , commander of the West Front, was to begin negotiations on a truce. The former chief of the General Staff , Beck , telephoned the head of the Paris group of conspirators, General Heinrich von Stulpnagel , about the entry into force of the Valkyrie. By order of the commandant of the garrison of Greater Paris, General von Boineburg-Lengsfeld, units of the Wehrmacht occupied the premises of the SDand political police. The chief of the SS and police in Paris Oberg and his staff were arrested. After receiving the news that Hitler was alive, von Kluge betrayed the conspirators by informing Berlin of what was happening in Paris. Von Stauffenberg and other leaders of the conspiracy were shot that same night. Many committed suicide. Thousands of conspirators were brought before the People's Tribunal and sentenced to death.

See also July Plot 1944.

Walkreis

(Victorias), a territorial constituency in pre-war Germany.

Walter, Bruno

(VvaIIeg), (1876-1962), German conductor. Born September 15, 1876 in Berlin. In his younger years he was strongly influenced by the composer Gustav Mahler. In 1913-22 Walter was musical director of the State Opera in Munich. In 1936-38 he was chief conductor of the Vienna Opera and Symphony Orchestra. In 1938 Walther emigrated to France, and in 1940 he moved to the USA. In 1947-49 he led the New York Symphony Orchestra, where he won worldwide recognition with performances of works by Mozart and Mahler. Walter died February 17, 1962 in California.

"Wandervogel"

By this time, the German youth movement began to take on a political dimension. Young people began to participate in street clashes and demonstrations in order to achieve a solution to urgent political and economic problems. Typical for this period was the Knappenschaft group, whose members, announcing the conditionsThe Versailles Treaty of 1919 was unjust, demanded their abolition and attacked Jews and Marxists. From the first days of its existence, the Nazi movement sought to establish control over the German youth through such organizations and was very successful in this.

Wannsee meeting

On January 20, 1942, in the Berlin suburb of Grossen-Wansee, a meeting of Nazi leaders, at which the final decision was made to exterminate European Jews - the so-called. "final decision". As early as July 31, 1941, Hermann Goering sent a letter to SD chief Reinhard Heydrich , in which he ordered him to present in the near future, in general terms, a draft of organizational and logistical measures related to the final solution of the “Jewish question”.

The meeting was attended by 15 people:

SS Obergruppenführer Heydrich (RSHA),

Gauleiter Mayer (Eastern Ministry),

Reichsamtsleiter Leibrandt (Eastern Ministry),

State Secretary Stuckart (Ministry of the Interior),

State Secretary Neumann (Office of the Four Year Plan),

State Secretary Freisler (Ministry of Justice),

Secretary of State Buhler (Governor-General),

Unter Secretary of State Luther (Ministry of Foreign Affairs),

SS Oberführer Klopfen (Party Chancellery),

Ministerial Adviser Kritzinger (Imperial Chancellery),

SS Obergruppenführer Hoffmann (RSHA),

Gruppenführer SS Müller (RSHA, Gestapo),

SS Obersturmbannführer Eichmann (RSHA, Gestapo),

SS Oberführer Schöngart (Governor General),

SS-Sturmbannführer Lange (Latvia).

The keynote speaker at the meeting was Heydrich, who announced that he was authorized for the "final solution of the Jewish question." He said that in connection with the beginning of the war against the USSR, the previously existing plan for the expulsion of Jews to the island of Madagascar was canceled, and the Fuhrer gave his sanction for the resettlement of the Jewish population of Europe to the east. This action should take place in an organized manner, while, Heydrich declared, it should be taken into account that there will undoubtedly be a “natural decrease in the number of deportees”. The survivors of this "natural selection", who actually form the solid core of Jewry and pose a serious danger because they can restore the Jewish way of life, should be "treated accordingly". Although Heydrich did not decipher the meaning of these words, it was completely obviously, that in time, because of inadequate nutrition and exhausting labor, the survivors will weaken and be ready for specially equipped extermination camps. According to Heydrich, the “final solution of the Jewish question” should cover, in addition to all the occupied countries, Great Britain, Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Turkey and the entire territory of the USSR, that is, almost the entire Jewish population of Europe, numbering 11 million. human. “During almost the entire Jewish population of Europe, numbering 11 million people. “During almost the entire Jewish population of Europe, numbering 11 million people. “During 

practical implementation of the final solution of the Jewish question, Europe will be combed from west to east,” said Heydrich.

The meeting participants then discussed the issue. n.mishlinge - representatives of mixed races, but they did not come to a single conclusion.

As a result of the meeting, a circular was prepared and sent to many Nazi authorities. Some time later, the first gas chambers were installed in Poland.

Vansittart, Robert Gilbert

(Vapziiiagі), (1881-1957), English diplomat, Deputy Foreign Secretary of Great Britain, representative of the British government in the Third Reich. Born June 25, 1881 in Farnham. He began his diplomatic service in 1902. He worked in Cairo (1909), Stockholm (1915) and Paris (1919). In May 1935, he received Joachim von Ribbentrop in London with the aim of signing the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935. In 1936 he visited the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, where he met with Hitler. In February 1937, he met with Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht about bilateral agreements in the field of colonial policy. He was a consistent opponent of the Nazi regime. Vansittart died on February 14, 1957 in Denham.

Warlimint, Walter

(VvagІіtopi), major general of the German army, one of Hitler's closest and most devoted officers. Born in 1895. In 1937, being a colonel in one of the departments of the War Ministry, Warlimont developed and prepared a plan for the reorganization of the German armed forces, which attracted the attention of Hitler. This project, taken as the basis of the new structure of the army under a single command and headquarters, allowed Warlimont to take the post of deputy chief of the operations department of the German High Command of the Armed Forces (OKW) Alfred Jodl.

On December 6, 1940, Hitler instructed Jodl and Warlimont to prepare a preliminary plan for an attack on the USSR. Together they issued Directive 21, originally codenamed "Fritz". A few days later this plan became known as "Barbarossa".

Vartegau

(VagShedai), the name of western Poland after its annexation by the Third Reich. This territory became one of the Gaus of the Nazi state.

"Waterfall"

(VAIERGGAII), the secret name for an offensive German surface-to-air missile. This weapon was developed as early as 1942. It was already ready for mass production, but the scientists at Peenemünde, working under the direction of Dr. Wernher von Braun, were busy developing long-range missiles.

The length of the rocket is about 8 meters, it was able to carry a charge weighing up to 165 kg of directional action at a distance of up to 16 km and hit enemy bombers with great accuracy. She was all-weather. AlbertSpeer believed that with the mass production of these small missiles in the spring of 1942, Allied air raids on German industrial facilities would have been completely suppressed. In contrast, long-range missiles, due to their high cost of production, were almost completely untenable. “It was a misguided investment,” Speer said.

Vakhdinst

(Vasbbiepsi), a sentry service in the countryside, consisting mainly of elderly men. “Vakhdinst” should not be confused with the paramilitary units of the Volkssturm, since the members of the “Vakhdinst” were mainly engaged in extinguishing fires and even exterminating agricultural pests.

Wachenfels

(VasbepTeiz), Hitler's house in Berchtesgaden, where he lived in the mid-1920s.

Wahmanschaft

(VasbtappzssiyatI:), the first SS units that guarded the concentration camps. Along with the formations that performed similar tasks - “Vakhshturm” (Vaschziigt), “Vakhtruppe” (VVaschigirre) and “Vachverbende” (Vasbzherganbe), they eventually became part of the SS division “Totenkopf”.

"Watch on the Rhine"

(“Vasni at Reipe”), the code name for the offensive operation of the Nazi troops on the Western Front against the allies in the Ardennes region, carried out in December 1944 - January 1945. See Ardennes operation 1944-45.

Wegener, Paul

(Vedepeg), (1874-1948), German actor. Born December 11, 1874 in Bischdorf. Studied at Freiburg and Leipzig Universities. He made his theater debut in 1895. In 1906 he was invited by Max Reinhardt to the German Theater in Berlin. Intermittently played in this theater until 1948.

As a screenwriter, director and actor, he was one of the founders of German artistic cinematography.

Weigel, Elena

(VeideI), German actress, wife of Bertolt Brecht. Born May 12, 1900 in Vienna. In 1918 she made her debut at the New Theater in Frankfurt am Main. In 1923-32 she performed on the stages of the largest theaters in Berlin. She played in Brecht’s plays “Drums in the Night”, “In the Jungle of Cities”, “The Supreme Measure”, “What is this soldier, what is this”, etc. In 1933, she emigrated from Nazi Germany with her family. She played on the stages of Paris and Copenhagen.

Weil, Kurt

Vail (VveiIII), (1900-1950), German composer and conductor. Born March 2, 1900 in Dessau. In 1919-20 he carried out opera productions as a conductor and director in Dessau and Lüdenscheid. The satirical “Threepenny Opera” gained world fame, with which Weil’s collaboration with Bertolt Brecht began, for whose plays Weil wrote insert numbers - songs and ballads, then operas to his libretto (“Happy Ending”, 1929; “The Man Who Always Says Yes” , “The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny”, 1930; ballet with singing “The Seven Deadly Sins”, 1933) and many others. others

In 1933 he emigrated to France, lived in England, from 1935 - in the USA, worked for Broadway theaters, wrote musicals, orchestral, choral, chamber works, as well as music for films and radio. Influenced Paul Hindemith, J. Gershwin and others. He died April 3, 1950 in New York.

Weimar Republic

Established as a result of the November Revolution of 1918, the bourgeois-democratic republic in Germany in 1919-1933. Consisted of 15 lands (republics) and 3 "free cities". The legal formalization of the Weimar Republic was the Weimar Constitution, drafted by the German Constituent National Assembly that met in Weimar and entered into force on August 11, 1919. The constitution declared important democratic rights and freedoms for citizens; an 8-hour working day was introduced, benefits for the unemployed were raised. However, the former socio-economic structures of Germany remained unchanged. Reichswehr officer corpswas closely associated with the industrial oligarchy. Imperial officials and police officers remained at their former posts. Numerous counter-revolutionary organizations operated in an atmosphere of indulgence and impunity, spreading revanchist ideas in German society.

Bread line in the Weimar Republic

there were massacres against the revolutionary workers of Berlin, and the Soviets were liquidated in many cities of the country.

The first president of the Weimar Republic was elected Friedrich Ebert, who held this post from February 1919 until his death in February 1925. The government of the republic was headed by the leader of the Social Democrats Gustav Scheidemann.

On the wave of separatist sentiments, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on April 5, 1919. For almost a month there were stubborn battles between the workers of Munich and the summoned government troops, until their resistance was broken in May 1919. A real “hunt for the Reds” began, the victims of which were thousands of people.

In March 1920 counter-revolutionary forces launched a frontal attack against the Weimar Republic. The coup d'état was led by the large landowner Wolfgang Kapp and General Walther von Lutwitz (see Kapp Putsch). The general strike announced by the trade unions and workers' parties forced the rebels to capitulate. After the failure of the rebellion, Bavaria became the main refuge and stronghold of the reactionaries, where since May 1919 there were regiments of the Reichswehr and the "Volunteer Corps" under the command of General Franz von Epp.

From the first days of its existence, the Weimar Republic faced enormous economic difficulties associated with the defeat of Germany in the 1st World War, the Allied blockade and colossal reparations (132 billion marks). Unprecedented inflation (in September 1923 one gold mark was worth 38.1 million paper marks) proved to be a severe blow to the population, as a result of which a government crisis arose in the country and a cabinet headed by J. Wirth, leader of the Catholic Center Party, came to power. pursued a policy of fulfilling the obligations imposed on Germany by the Versailles Treaty of 1919.

In November 1922, a new government of the Weimar Republic was formed, headed by W. Kuno, who took a course towards ending reparation payments. After Cuno's resignation in August 1923, the government was headed by the leader of the German People's Party, Gustav Stresemann, who tried to stabilize the political situation in the country (suppressed the armed uprising of the Hamburg workers and Hitler's "Beer Putsch" of 1923). In 1924, the Stresemann government adopted a new plan for regulating reparation payments (see. Dawes Plan), which facilitated the introduction of foreign capital into the economy of the Weimar Republic and made it possible to accelerate the restoration of the German military-industrial potential.

In 1925, after the death of Ebert, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg was elected president of the country .

After the elections to the Reichstag in 1928, a new coalition government was formed, headed by G.

Muller, which demanded a revision of the reparations regime. The new plan approved in 1930 (see Young Plan) contributed to the further growth of Germany's military and economic potential. The backbone of the future mass army was created, the construction of the navy began, gigantic monopolies were created, concentrating in their hands a significant part of all-German production. Numerous illegal military formations (Steel Helmet, SD assault detachments, etc.) became more active in the country.

However, the global economic crisis of 1929-33 also affected the Weimar Republic. The overall decline in production in 1932 exceeded 40% (compared with 1929), unemployment covered almost 45% of the country's population. Growing dissatisfaction with the existing system. Under these conditions, the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany launched a vigorous activity , conducting anti-Semitic and anti-communist propaganda, inciting hatred of Kt. n. "internal enemies".

In the spring of 1930, the leader of the “Centre” party, G. Brüning, became head of the government. His government issued many emergency decrees restricting the democratic rights of workers. There were cuts in social spending, lower wages, higher taxes, and expansion of the rights of monopolies.

In September 1930, in the elections to the Reichstag, the Nazis received about 6.5 million votes, advancing to the second (after the SPD) place in the Reichstag. In the presidential elections in March-April 1932, the Nazis already collected over 13 million votes, but President Hindenburg managed to keep his post. In June 1932, Hindenburg appointed a new chancellor, Franz von Papen,entered into a direct collusion with Hitler. A wave of Nazi terror swept across the country, unprecedented in scale and ferocity. On July 20, 1932, a coup d'etat took place in Prussia, where the coalition government with the participation of the Social Democrats, which was in power, was dispersed. In this situation, the democratic forces of the country launched a mass campaign against the advancing reaction. In the autumn of 1932, there was a decline in the popularity of the Nazi Party among the population (in the elections to the Reichstag on November 6, 1932, the NSDAP received 11.7 million votes; 2 million less than in the July elections). The success of the communists seriously frightened the right-wing forces, which prompted the German monopolists to accelerate the transfer of power to the Nazis. On the initiative of HjalmarShakht andKurt von Schroeder, on behalf of industrialists and financiers, a memorandum was sent to President von Hindenburg, which stated: “We consider it a duty of our conscience to ask Your Excellency ...

Women and children desperately try to find pieces of coal during the crisis of 1923. Fuel often decided a matter of life and death

A crippled war veteran, awarded the Iron Cross, accepts alms on a Berlin street.

form a cabinet that will enjoy the support of the most powerful national force. Giving the Fuehrer of the largest national organization the post of head of a presidential cabinet, consisting of the best figures in terms of their professional training and personal merit... will attract to the cooperation of millions of people who have stood aloof until now...”

On January 30, 1933, Hindenburg appointed Hitler Reich Chancellor. A dictatorship regime was established in the country, and from that moment the Weimar Republic actually ceased to exist.

“Weiss Rose”

(Veizze Pose), an underground student organization in Munich. See "White Rose".

Weichs, Maximilian von

V a x s (Visises), (1881-1954), Field Marshal General (1943) of the German army. Born November 12, 1881 in Dessau, Bavaria. In the army since 1900, he served in the cavalry, a participant in the 1st World War, then in the Reichswehr.From 1933 he commanded a cavalry (from 1935 - tank) division, from 1937 - the 13th army corps. From January 1938, Weichs was commander of the XIII military district (headquarters in Nuremberg). Since October 1939, commander of the 2nd Army, participated in the French and Balkan campaigns and in the war against the USSR. From July 1942 commander of Army Group B, from August 1943 commander of Army Group F and the German troops of the South-East (Balkans). Weichs made extensive use of anti-aircraft artillery in ground battles, for which he received the nickname “anti-aircraft general.” From March 1945 in the reserve of the Headquarters. In 1945-48 he was in an American prison for war crimes. Weichs died in Resberg-Cologne on September 27, 1954.

Weizsacker, Ernst von

(Veizgaskeg), (1882-1951), German diplomat, State Secretary of the German Foreign Ministry. Born May 12, 1882 in Stuttgart. In 1910 he joined the imperial navy and participated in World War I. Since 1920 in diplomatic work. Von Weizsacker took an active part in the diplomatic support of Hitler's aggressive plans against Czechoslovakia and Poland. Shortly after the appointment in 1938 of Joachim von RibbentropForeign Minister of Germany, von Weizsäcker received the post of State Secretary of the Foreign Ministry. In 1943-45 he was the representative of Germany to the Vatican. Arrested by the Allied authorities, von Weizsäcker was put on trial in 1947 for his involvement in war crimes. In 1949 he was sentenced to seven years in prison. Released under an amnesty in 1950. Von Weizsäcker died on August 4, 1951 in Lindau.

In his memoirs, von Weizsacker claimed that he never supported Hitler's foreign policy and did everything possible to keep the Nazis out of the realm of diplomacy. He stated that he became a member of the Nazi Party solely "for the purpose of disguise."

Wels, Otto

(Weimar), (1873-1939), politician of the Weimar Republic, social democrat. Born September 15, 1873 in Berlin. From 1931 he was a member of the Central Committee of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). Member of the Reichstag in 1912-18 and in 1920-33. In 1931-33 Wels was chairman of the SPD. On March 23, 1933, he delivered a speech to the Reichstag in which he protested on behalf of his party against the transfer of emergency powers to Hitler. Shortly thereafter, Wels was forced to leave Germany, first settling in Prague, and in 1938 he moved to Paris, where he continued to lead the SPD in exile. He died in Paris on September 16, 1939.

An election poster calling on voters to cast their votes for a Greater Germany. April 1933

“Veltanshaulihe shulung”

(VѴІіапзсаиІісе Бсиіпд), a course of ideological education and upbringing of the younger generation of Germans with the aim of planting the Nazi worldview (“weltanshaung”).

Weltanshaung

(VVeIIIapzssaiipd - “World View”), popular in the Third Reicheter Min to refer to the National Socialist concept of the world, the Nazi philosophy of life. Hitler constantly referred to this concept in his works and speeches. In March 1934, at a meeting with old party comrades, he declared that his political victory was nothing more than a change of government. Only the victory of worldview would be truly revolutionary. The National Socialist revolution will be able to achieve final victory only when it is accepted by all Germans. That is why the Nazi "weltanschung" must become a universal German worldview. Following Hitler, this concept was constantly used by many Nazi leaders.

Weltmacht oder nidergang

(“VeIItasy obeg Miebegdapd” - “World domination or collapse”), the slogan used by Hitler to characterize his own aggressive policy. If world domination is unattainable, he said, then he, like Samson in Gaza, prefers to die in a cataclysm. “If we fail to conquer the world,” Hitler declared in 1934, “we must drag half the world into destruction with us.” On the eve of the collapse of the Third Reich, he accused the German nation of failing to ensure the fulfillment of his plans (see "Twilight of the Gods").

Wenk, Walter

(Vepk), general of the German army. Born September 18, 1900 in Wittenberg. In 1911 he entered the cadet school in Naumberg, in 1918 he entered the military school in Groß-Lichterfeld. AT 

1920 joined the private in the Reichswehr,in 1923 he was promoted to non-commissioned officer. In May 1933, Wenk, with the rank of lieutenant, was transferred to the 3rd Motorized Reconnaissance Regiment. After completing a training course at the General Staff, Wenck in 1936 was enrolled in the headquarters of the tank corps stationed in Berlin. On May 1, 1939, he was promoted to the rank of major and was appointed staff officer of the 1st Panzer Division in Weimar. As part of this division, Wenk participated in the fighting in Poland and on the Western Front, where he was wounded in the leg. December 1, 1940 he was awarded the rank of lieutenant colonel. On June 22, 1941, the 1st Panzer Division was transferred to the Eastern Front, where it took part in the battles near Leningrad, and then near Moscow. In December 1941, the division was surrounded, but thanks to the plan developed by Wenck, it managed to break out of the encirclement, for which Wenck was awarded the Golden Cross and admitted to the Academy of the General Staff. On June 1, 1942, he was promoted to the rank of colonel and again sent as a staff officer to the Eastern Front. Wenk took part in the battle for the Caucasus. During the Battle of Stalingrad, he was the chief of staff of the 3rd Romanian army, where he managed to form combat-ready units that defended Rostov from the defeated and demoralized units. December 28, 1942 Wenck was awarded the Knight's Cross, and February 1, 1943 promoted to major general. On March 11, 1943, he became chief of staff of the 1st Panzer Army, which took part in the most difficult battles near Kamenetz-Podolsk and managed, thanks to Wenck's talent and abilities, to break out of the encirclement in the Dniester region. After that, Wenk was appointed to the post of chief of staff of the Army Group "Southern Ukraine" with the rank of lieutenant general. Shortly thereafter, he became Chief of Operations and Deputy Chief of Staff of the Ground Forces. Now he passed his reports directly to Hitler, who was able to appreciate the directness, dignity and intelligence of Wenck.

In mid-February 1945, when Soviet troops reached the shores

General Walter Wenk

Oder, the German General Staff developed a plan for launching a counterattack, which was to be carried out by the Fistula group under the command of SS Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler. Chief of the General Staff of the Ground Forces Heinz Guderianconvinced the Fuhrer to appoint Wenck to the post of chief of staff of the Fistula group, which gave at least some hope of success. The coordinated counterattacks developed by Wenck initially brought results. However, on February 14, 1945, he was forced to travel daily from the front line to meetings in Berlin, overcoming several hundreds of kilometers, completely exhausted Wenck got into a car accident, while receiving severe injuries. Without a counterattack directed to the Wenck hospital, the groups completely choked. On April 1, 1945, while still recovering, Wenck received the rank of General of the Panzer Troops. After the 12 1st Army, Wenck was put in command of the ill-equipped army, which was first thrown against the Americans, and on April 20

E. Sundt. "Girl from the Hitler Youth"

transferred to the Berlin area with an order to stop the Soviet units on the outskirts of the city and save the encircled 9th army of General Theodor Busse from defeat, which was surrounded near Potsdam. However, the only thing that the 12th Army, which did not have sufficient resources, succeeded in was to delay the enemy’s rapid offensive until May 1 and allow the refugees to leave to the west, and separate units of the 9th Army that had broken through from the encirclement to connect with Wenck’s troops. Gathering together all the forces, burdened with thousands of refugees from the civilian population, Wenk managed to break through to the west, cross the Elbe and surrender to the Americans on May 7, 1945.

After the war, Wenck worked in various commercial and industrial firms, becoming in 1953 a member of the board of directors, and in 1955 the chairman of the board of one of them. At the end of the 60s. Wenk retired.

“Faith and Beauty”

(“СІауЬе ipb ZsbopiteP”), a youth women's organization as part of the Union of German Girls. Created in 1937 by Baldur von Schirach. It was entered by girls aged 17 to 21 years. They were taught housekeeping and prepared for marriage and motherhood in accordance with the National Socialist concept of the “ideal German woman”.

Werewolf

(VebgІѵvoI), the most significant, along with the "Steel Helmet", the armed formations of self-defense of the Nazi Party in pre-war Germany, used to protect Nazi rallies and meetings and the main leaders of the party. The headquarters of the organization was in Thuringia. Unlike other similar formations, the "Werewolf" consisted mainly of representatives of the working class and subsequently served as the base for the creation of the SS troops.

Werewolf

(VegavoIT), militia units created in the last days of the 2nd World War to conduct guerrilla warfare in the rear of the advancing allied forces. On the eve of the surrender, the Werewolf was led by SS Obergruppenführer (General) Hans Preitzmann. The members of the "werewolf" were recruited from among teenagers and the elderly, underwent a short course of combat training, fought in uniform, and in case of captivity demanded the rights of prisoners of war in relation to themselves. Their goal was to commit sabotage in the rear of the advancing Allied forces.

In the last days of the war, the “werewolf” distributed leaflets threatening those who refused to support them and assist them: “We will punish every traitor and his family. Our revenge will be deadly!” Despite such threats, the Werewolf never became an effective fighting force. In his first appearance as Hitler's successor, Admiral Karl Dönitz ordered all members

"werewolf" to stop fighting and lay down their weapons. His order was carried out.

Verkrais

(VIbkggeiz; VVkg.), a defensive military district during the Third Reich. In German documents it was denoted by Roman numerals. Usually in peacetime, the Wehrkreis had a vertical command structure, a main headquarters, certain places of deployment of personnel and several Wehrmacht infantry units at its disposal. The commander of the werkreis was also the commander of his subordinate units.

Wehrmacht

(VebgtasI'y:, from VBG - weapons, defense and Masbі - strength), the armed forces of Nazi Germany in 1935-45. The basis for the creation and deployment of the Wehrmacht was the Reichswehr, renamed after the introduction on March 16, 1935 (“Law on the construction of the Wehrmacht”) of universal military service.

According to the "Law on the construction of the Wehrmacht", the number of divisions was to increase to 36, and the total strength of the land army to reach 500 thousand people.

The Wehrmacht was headed by the Supreme High Command of the Armed Forces of Germany (OKW), which subordinated the ground forces (Neg bases), the Air Force (bee YYѵvaNe), the Navy (bee Kgіedztagіpe). At the head of these troops were the main commands (German: OKN, OKB, OKM) and, accordingly, the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and since 1940 also the SS troops (Vva (Tep88). The Wehrmacht's supreme commander was Chancellor Adolf Hitler.

On the eve of World War II, the Wehrmacht numbered about 3 million people; its maximum number was about 11 million people (December 1943).

List of senior generals of the Wehrmacht in 1939:

Walther von Brauchitsch, 1881, commander of the armed forces;

Von Blomberg, Hitler , Generals Beck and von Bock on Wehrmacht maneuvers in the summer of 1935. Within just two years 1934-35, the Wehrmacht personnel increased from 100,000 to 500,000 people

Gerd von Rundstedt, 1875, retired;

Fedor von Bock, 1880, 1st Army Group;

Wilhelm von Leeb, 1876, retired;

Wilhelm Keitel, 1882, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces (OKW);

Wilhelm List, 1880, 5th Army Group;

Johannes Blaskowitz, 1883, 3rd Army Group;

Gunther Hans von Kluge, 1882, 6th Army Group;

Erwin von Witzleben, 1881, 2nd Army Group;

Friedrich Dollmann, 1882, 9th Corps.

Wehrmachtsbeefelschaber

(Vebgtasbіzjegeyzgіаїeg; VV.Vet.), the military title of the commander of the ground forces in the occupied territory, who reported directly to the chief of staff of the Supreme High Command of the German Armed Forces (OKW), Wilhelm Keitel.

Wehrmachtsfürungsamt

(VveigtasyizSheigipdzati; VVEA), the department of the Supreme High Command of the Armed Forces of Germany (OKW), which was responsible for conducting combat operations. Created on February 4, 1938, it was headed by General Wilhelm Keitel.

Wehrmachtsfürungsstaff

(VBppasIIzTiebgipdziab; VVR81), the operational department of the Supreme High Command of the German Armed Forces (OKW), which was engaged in the development of combat operations; It was headed by Alfred Jodl.

"Versailles diktat"

An expression often used by Nazi leaders to refer to the unfair terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919 from their point of view.

Although the vast majority of political figures in the Weimar Republic resisted the terms of the Treaty of Versailles to one degree or another, only the Nazi government decided to completely ignore them.

Treaty of Versailles 1919

Treaty officially ending World War I. Signed June 28, 1919 at Versailles (France) by the United States of America, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, as well as Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Hijaz, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru , Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Serbo-Croat-Slovenian state, Siam, Czechoslovakia and Uruguay, on the one hand, and capitulated Germany, on the other. The terms of the treaty were worked out after lengthy secret meetings at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920. The treaty entered into force on January 10, 1920, after it was ratified by Germany and the four main allied powers—Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. The US Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles due to the unwillingness of the US to commit itself to participation in the League of Nations.

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine to France (within the borders of 1870); Belgium - the districts of Malmedy and Eupen, as well as the so-called. neutral and Prussian parts of Morena; Poland - Poznan, parts of Pomerania and other territories of the West. Prussia; the city of Danzig and its district was declared a "free city"; the city of Memel (Klaipeda) was transferred to the jurisdiction of the victorious powers (in February 1923 it was annexed to Lithuania). As a result of the plebiscite, part of Schleswig in 1920 passed to Denmark, part of the Upper. Silesia in 1921 - to Poland, a small section of Silesian territory went to Czechoslovakia. Saarland went on for 15 years 

under the control of the League of Nations. The coal mines of the Saar were transferred to French ownership. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany recognized and pledged to strictly observe the independence of Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia. The German part of the left bank of the Rhine and a strip of the right bank 50 km wide were subject to demilitarization. Germany was deprived of all its colonies, which were later divided among the main victorious powers.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the armed forces of Germany were limited to a 100,000-strong land army; compulsory military service was abolished, the main part of the surviving navy was to be transferred to the winners. Germany undertook to compensate in the form of reparations the losses incurred by the governments and individual citizens of the Entente countries as a result of hostilities.

According to Art. 116 Germany recognized “... the independence of all territories that were part of the former Russian Empire by August 1, 1914”, as well as the abolition of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918 and all other treaties concluded by it with the Soviet government.

The size and conditions of reparation payments were repeatedly reviewed. The USA gave huge loans to the German monopolies (see the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan). In 1931, a moratorium was granted to Germany, after which the reparation payments were stopped.

The dissatisfaction of the German population with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles was used by Hitler and the Nazis in order to create a mass base for their party. In March 1935, Hitler introduced universal military service, which violated the military articles of the treaty. In June 1935, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935 was concluded, which was a bilateral violation of the Treaty of Versailles. The capture by Germany of Austria (1938), Czechoslovakia (1938-39), Klaipeda (1939) and the attack on Poland (September 1, 1939) actually meant the final liquidation of the Treaty of Versailles.

Werfel, Franz

(VerGeI), (1890-1945), Austrian writer. Born September 10, 1890 in Prague. Studied at the German University in Prague. After World War I he moved to Vienna, where he married the widow of the composer Gustav Mahler. A lyrical poet who denounced the horrors of war, playwright and novelist, Werfel in his works rose from physiological realism to expressionism, becoming one of its initiators in German literature. Collaborated in the Berlin magazine "Action" ("Ak-ііop").His large-scale novel “Forty Days of Musa-Dat”, which tells about the extermination of Armenians by the Young Turks during the First World War, attracted everyone's attention to him. The dramas The Man from the Mirror (1920), Paul Among the Jews (1927), the novels Guilty of the Murdered (1920), Classmates (1928), Star of the Unborn (1946) are permeated with the ideas of abstract humanism with a mystical slope. In 1938, after the occupation of Austria by the Nazis, he fled to France, and after the defeat of France in 1940 - to the United States. The greatest success of the American period of Werfel's work, colored with religious motifs, fell to the lot of the novel "Hymn to Bernadette" (1941). The novel is, as it were, a modern "life" - a story about a simple village girl, whose sincere faith helps to perform miraculous healings. Werfel died in Beverly Hills, California on August 26, 1945.

supreme

High Command of the German Armed Forces (OKW)

(Greekkotpatsio running VVeigtasy:; OKVV). It was created by order of Hitler on February 4, 1938 instead of the War Ministry The Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces was Hitler, to whose allegiance the personnel of the armed forces were required to take an oath. The OKW had four departments: the operational department (A. Jodl), military intelligence and counterintelligence - Abwehr (V. Canaris), the economic department, which was in charge of supplying and arming the army (G. Thomas), and a general purpose department. General (since 1940 - Field Marshal) Wilhelm Keitel was appointed chief of staff of the Supreme High Command of the Armed Forces.

Organizational structure of the OKW in the Third Reich

1934-1938

Supreme Commander: Fuhrer and Chancellor

Commander-in-Chief: Minister of War

Commander of the Ground Forces

Commander of the Navy

Commander of the Air Force

1938-1941

Supreme Commander and Minister of War: Fuhrer and Chancellor

Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces

Commander of the Ground Forces

Commander of the Navy

Commander of the Air Force

1941-1945

Supreme Commander, Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief of the Land Forces; Fuhrer and Chancellor

Chief of Staff of the Ground Forces Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces

Commander of the Navy

Commander of the Air Force

“Weserubung”

(“Visegaryband”), the code name for the plan for the invasion of Denmark and Norway in early 1940. The destruction of the German battleship Graf Spee on December 17, 1939made it clear to Hitler that he was dependent on British submarines anchored in Norwegian territorial waters. In addition, the German war machine needed Swedish ore, which was delivered through the Norwegian port of Narvik. Immediately after the sinking of the Graf Spee, Hitler consulted with Vidkun Quisling, head of the Norwegian puppet government, regarding the controversial issue of the use of Norwegian ports. On March 1, 1940, Hitler issued a directive: “The development of the situation in Scandinavia makes it necessary to prepare for the occupation of Denmark and Norway by ground forces. This will serve as a warning against England's actions against Scandinavia and the Baltic, secure our communications for the delivery of ore from Sweden and provide the fleet and air force with an extensive network of bases for operations against England.

Wessel, Hans Horst

(VfezzeI), (1907-1930), German attack aircraft, elevated by Nazi propaganda to the rank of so-called. "martyr". Born September 9, 1907 in Bielefeld. As indicated in the report of Berlin Police Commissioner Kurt Schiesselmann, Horst Wessel lived at 45 Maximilianstrasse and earned his livelihood by pimping. On September 4, 1924, he was sentenced by a Berlin court to two years in prison for fraud. After leaving prison, Horst Wessel suddenly became interested in politics and, remembering his old friend Himmler, joined the National Socialist Party. This was the time when the NSDAP was eyeing the criminal world in search of decisive

O. Hoyer. "Wounded from SA"

guys to create the backbone of their assault squads. Wessel was enrolled in the SA and with a group of thugs he recruited from among his friends from the underworld of Berlin, he formed the Sturm-5 assault squad. After bloody skirmishes, he managed to gain the upper hand in one of Berlin's notorious, formerly communist-dominated quarters, which earned him the title of honorary member of the Berlin storm troopers.

Horst Wessel wrote around 1928 Nazi-inspired lyrics to the tune of an old sea ditty. This song, after the death of the author, became the anthem of the Nazi Party under the name "Horst Wessel". Wessel was killed in a street fight in Berlin on February 23, 1930, according to police protocol, by another pimp, Ali Hehler, who turned out to be a communist, in a skirmish over the "right of possession" of a girl in one of Weding's hangouts in Berlin. He was elevated by Nazi propaganda to the rank of a national hero and took his place in the pantheon of Nazi "martyrs", and his mother and sister became honorary participants in Nazi propaganda meetings.

"Westdeutscher Beobachter"

("Gezisiei Izsbeg Beosbieg"), a Nazi newspaper published in Cologne.

Vestfel Jdcug

(“VeziTeIsigid”), the code name for the military operation to seize the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and France in 1940.

Wefer, Walter

(Veveer), (1887-1936), lieutenant general of aviation, first chief of the general staff of the Luftwaffe. Born in Posen (now Poznan, Poland). He began military service in the Kaiser's army in 1905. In 1914 he fought on the Western Front as a platoon commander. In 1915, Vefer was promoted to the rank of captain, and he was sent to the General Staff, where, despite his low rank, he showed himself as a capable tactician and organizer. In 1917, Wefer became an aide-de-camp to General Erich Ludendorff. After the end of the 1st World War, Wefer continued to serve in the Reichswehr personnel department, where he gained great respect from the commander of the armed forces of the Weimar Republic .Colonel General Hans von Seekt. In 1926 Vefer was promoted to the rank of major, and in 1930 to colonel. In 1933 he became head of the department of military schools.

The Minister of War of the Third Reich, General Werner von Blomberg, realizing the need for competent leaders being created by the Luftwaffe, transferred his best staff officers to this department, among whom was Wefer. In his address, Blomberg noted that the army was losing the future Chief of the General Staff. Wefer (by this time already a lieutenant general) in an incredibly short time delved into all the problems of the Luftwaffe and identified priority areas

Lieutenant General Walter Wefer, First Chief of the General Staff of the Luftwaffe

niya of their development. He convinced Göring and Milch of the need to build long-range heavy bombers capable of reaching the Urals. Thanks to his energy, in 1936 the Junker-89 and Dornier-19 were already ready for flight tests. Wefer had the art of getting along with people and getting his own way from them, despite the fierce intrigues, denunciation and slander that reigned in the highest echelons of Nazi power. His reputation remained untarnished, which was a very rare occurrence under the Nazi regime. Unshakably believing in the ideas of National Socialism, Wefer said that either the new Luftwaffe would become National Socialist, or would not exist at all.

Wefer did a lot for the construction of the new German Air Force. But as a pilot, he left much to be desired. Apparently, this circumstance was to a large extent the cause of his death. On June 3, 1936, after a speech to the cadets of the Dresden Air Force School, Wefer was supposed to fly to Berlin. As soon as he lifted his Heinkel-70 into the air, the one with full tanks lost control, crashed into the ground and exploded.

Weeping at Wefer's funeral, Reichsmarschall Goering delivered a speech: “He was an inspiring example for all of us - a purposeful, modest, great man and a brilliant officer. There are no words to describe his contribution to the common cause. The fact that the Luftwaffe exists today is the merit of its tireless work.

The death of Vefer had, as it later became clear, a strong impact on the entire course of the 2nd World War, since without him the four-engine strategic bomber was never put into mass production. And the German Air Force turned out to be unable to support the actions of the fleet in the “Battle of the Atlantic”, failed to inflict a crushing blow on the industrial and military facilities of Great Britain, and the production capacities of the Soviet Union were generally beyond the reach of Luftwaffe aircraft.

Wefer was replaced as Chief of the General Staff of the Luftwaffe by General Alfred Kesselring.

Videman, Fritz

(Vibebetapp), (1891-1970), battalion commander, Hitler's immediate superior during the 1st World War. Born August 16, 1891 in Augsburg. He began military service in 1910 in the 3rd Bavarian Infantry Regiment in Augsburg, and the following year at the Munich Military School. In 1912 he was promoted to lieutenant. In 1914, Wiedemann became a battalion commander of the 17th Bavarian Infantry Regiment. Lance corporal Adolf Hitler, a messenger at the headquarters of this regiment, became attached to his senior officer. War Form

man graduated as a captain and became a farmer in the Allgäu. In 1934 he joined the NSDAP and became Hitler's personal assistant until 1938. He was sent to London to inform the British Foreign Secretary Halifax about Hitler's intentions regarding the Sudetenland, attended the Munich Conference of 1938. In 1939 he was sent to San Francisco to as German consul general, but was expelled from the US in June 1941. Then he served as German consul in China until he was arrested by the Americans in 1945. After World War II, Wiedemann was sentenced in Nuremberg to 28 months in prison. In 1964 he wrote a memoir about Hitler - "The Man Who Wanted to Be a Commander", where he used his diaries from the time of the 1st World War.

"Wiederstadt"

(Viccierziaps - "Resistance, opposition"), a term first proposed by Helmuth von Moltke to refer mainly to the moral rejection of the Nazi regime. Among the opponents of the Nazi dictatorship were social democrats, communists, clergymen, intellectuals, senior army officers - all those who considered the Nazi regime a disgrace to Germany. Later, many of them joined the resistance movement or became participants in numerous unsuccessful plots against Hitler. But the concept of "wiederstand" remained to exist as a proper German definition of resistance within the Third Reich, in contrast to analogues in the territories of the occupied countries.

See also July Plot 1944.

Wiesenthal, Simon

(VisepFiaI), founder of the Documentation Center (Archive) in Vienna, the purpose of which was to search for Nazis who escaped punishment after the end of the 2nd World War. Born in 1908 in Poland, majoring in architecture. Wiesenthal was a prisoner of many concentration camps. After the war, while working in the American military administration, he was engaged in the search for war criminals in Austria, and later was an employee of the Strategic Services Directorate and counterintelligence units of the United States. In 1947, in Linz, he opened a small documentation center to search for Nazi criminals. In 1960, he helped the Israeli government discover Adolf Eichmann, who played a major role in the implementation of the so-called. "final decision".In 1961 he moved his center to Vienna, where he collected a file of 22,500 wanted Nazi criminals. At the same time, he headed the Jewish Federation of Victims of the Nazi Regime. In 1948, Wiesenthal participated in the work of the Central Agency for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes of the State Office of Justice of West Germany.

wilhelmstrasse

A street in Berlin where the Reich Chancellery was located during Hitler's reign. In everyday life, this was the name of the entire complex of buildings of the office and the government of Germany.

Wilde Camp

(VIIIcIe Iadeg), see "Wild Camps".

"Wilfred"

(“VVіKgesІ”), the code name for the mining of Norwegian territorial waters planned by the Allied military command on April 8, 1940, in order to cut off the sea routes for the delivery of Swedish ore from Narvik to Germany. The Wilfred plan was to be carried out in parallel with the so-called. "plan P-4" - the capture of Trondheim, Bergen and Stavanger by insignificant Anglo-French forces.

Winkel

(VipkeI), a triangular patch on the clothing of concentration camp prisoners. Depending on the category, the prisoners wore “winkel” of different colors.

Winterhilfe

(“VIпіегКіИе” – “Winter Relief”), a Nazi charitable fund to help poor compatriots during the Third Reich. Hitler, in an effort to demonstrate his government's concern for the people, assigned this fund an important role in attracting as many Germans as possible to his side. Donations were collected on the streets by people dressed in SA uniforms, who had special badges on their lapels. In addition, once a year, all local Nazi organizations were required to conduct campaigns to raise funds for the relief fund. To do this, party officials, theater and film stars took to the streets of cities. Official Nazi newspaper "Völkischer Beobachter"came out with large headlines, reporting on the amount of money raised. In the first period of the Nazi regime, Jewish shopkeepers, seeking to pay off the authorities, made huge donations to the fund. Despite the many opportunities for corruption and abuse common to the Nazi regime, the needy did receive benefits from this fund. In 1937 about 10 million people received parcels or cash. Families received support in this way: national holidays were held six times a year - the so-called. “meat pot days” during which free meals were distributed. Nazi leaders, using these events for propaganda purposes, often sat at tables set up in the streets and ate with the common people. The relief fund also kept 10% of the wages of workers in the winter. The industrialist Siemens arranged private concerts, where he himself conducted a philharmonic orchestra, to raise funds for charity. Those who refused to donate were publicly branded as bourgeois inhabitants -“spisser” (Spiezzer). Denial of donations caused public censure, and often direct threats.

Wirmer, Joseph

(Vigmer), (1901-1944), well-known Berlin lawyer who played an important role in the 1944 July conspiracy against Hitler. Possessing outstanding diplomatic skills and the ability to negotiate, Wirmer became a link between the right (Gördeler) and left (Stauffenberg, Leber) wing of the conspirators. Wirmer was arrested shortly after the failure of the plot and executed on September 8, 1944. In his last letter to his wife from Fürstenberg prison on the eve of his execution, he wrote: “Dying is not easy. I hope to keep my spirit to the end. All I can say is love each other, be kind to each other, help each other.”

"Viral House"

Colloquially used name for the nuclear research laboratory in Berlin, where German scientists including Albert Einstein, Max Born, and Lise Meitner worked to develop atomic weapons.

Whistles, Dieter

(VizIisepu), (? -1948), SS Sturmbannführer (major). He worked under the leadership of Adolf Eichmann in the central Imperial office for Jewish emigration. Engaged in Hungary, Slovakia and Greece, seeking lucrative deals in exchange for the release of Jews. He was hanged in Bratislava in July 1948.

Witzleben, Erwin von

(VIYeben), (1881-1944), Field Marshal of the German Armed Forces, one of the leaders of the conspiracy against Hitler. Born December 4, 1881 in Breslau. In 1935, with the rank of lieutenant general, he was appointed commander of the III military district. From the beginning of the 2nd World War to October 1940 - commander of the 1st Army. July 19, 1940, after the defeat of France, he became one of 12 senior officers to whom Hitler awarded the rank of General Field Marshal. Until March 1941, von Witzleben commanded a group 

armies "D", and until February 1942 - commander-in-chief of the German troops in the West, in France. He retired in 1942.

As one of the most experienced members of the resistance movement, von Witzleben was a candidate for the post of commander-in-chief of the armed forces in the event of Hitler's removal from power. He was arrested as one of the main conspirators against Hitler and sentenced to death by the People's Tribunal. August 9, 1944 von Witzleben was executed.

SS troops

(VvaNep-55), armed formations of the Nazi Party.

The history of the Waffen-SS goes back to 1933, when Hitler renamed his headquarters guards "Adolf Hitler's Personal Guard Regiment" (see "Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler"), creating from it an armed formation independent of the regular army and police.

At the beginning of 1936, the SS units stationed in the barracks were divided into two groups: "SS reinforcement units", which included Hitler's bodyguard regiment, and the "Dead Head" detachments. On October 1, 1936, an inspectorate of “SS Reinforcement Units” was created within the framework of the main department of the SS, under the leadership of a former general of the ReichswehrPaul Hausser, who was awarded the title of Bria Adenführer of the SS. He was given the task of turning the poorly trained SS armed formations (numbering at that time about 8.5 thousand people) into well-trained troops equipped with the latest weapons. Recruitment in them was carried out in accordance with the criteria of the Nazi worldview and the necessary physical data (the height of the soldiers of the "Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler" is at least 180 cm, in other parts - 175 cm). The duration of service is 4 years for privates, 12 for non-commissioned officers and 25 for officers.

In 1937, gray field uniforms were introduced in SS units, which had runic lapels on the lapels.

Waffen-SS propaganda poster

SS badges and insignia. SS officer cadres were trained in two military schools (about 400 officers annually).

The purpose of the “SS Reinforcement Units”, which became the embryo of future SS troops, Himmler described as follows: “SS Reinforcement Units” were created in order to take part in the war. By shedding their blood at the front, they will acquire the moral right to fight saboteurs and internal enemies.”

The strength of the security battalions in 1936 increased to 35,000 men; from March 1936 they received the name "Dead Head". In Hitler's secret order of August 17, 1938, it was specified that they were not part of either the Wehrmacht,nor to the police (although they were under the overall command of the Reichsführer-SS Himmler), that they serve for four years (with voluntary entry into them) and that they are a permanent armed formation of the SS, created to "perform special tasks of a police nature." In the event of war, these units are to be used by the “high command of the army in wartime conditions”, but politically they remain “parts of the NSDAP”. In case of mobilization, Hitler reserved the right to determine the date himself, the strength of the wartime army, depending on the internal political situation at the moment.

Immediately after the publication of this order, Himmler revised the organization of the SS troops: he motorized them and created new anti-tank defense units, machine gun and reconnaissance battalions. In July 1939, he gave them an artillery regiment, thus completing the transformation of his "emergency troops" into combat units.

In early September 1939, the conversion of SS special units into troops began. At the beginning of 1940, a large number of volunteers entered the SS troops; they amounted to approximately 100 thousand people: 64 thousand volunteers and 36 thousand conscripts of the SS troops took part in the occupation of the Sudetenland, Bohemia and Moravia.

After the Polish campaign, where the first SS units behaved with the cruelty that was expected of them - and which Goering called "exemplary courage", Himmler received permission to form new divisions. Fully motorized and equipped with armored units of the SS troops participated in military operations against France, Belgium and Holland.

The demands of the moment and the desire to endlessly build up the power of his army forced Himmler to abandon the famous “rules of blood”, which until then were considered a decisive factor for the “protection of the race and ideology” of Nazism. The situation has changed. Tall blond Aryans with absolutely pure Nordic blood,

Russian Cossacks in the ranks of the Waffen-SS

Table 1. SS troops

Name

SS Panzer Division "Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler"

SS Panzer Division "Reich"

SS Panzer Division "Dead Head" SS Motorized Police Division SS Panzer Division "Viking" SS Mountain Division "Nord"

SS Volunteer Mountain Division "Prince Eugene"

SS Cavalry Division "Florian Geyer"

SS Panzer Division "Hohenstaufen" SS Panzer Division "Frundsberg" SS Volunteer Motorized Infantry Division "Nordland"

SS Panzer Division “Hitler Youth” SS Mountain Division “Handschar” 1st SS Infantry Division “Galicia” 1st SS Infantry Division “Latvia” SS Motorized Infantry Division “Reichsführer SS”

SS Goetz von Berlichingen Motorized Infantry Division

SS Volunteer Motorized Infantry Division “Horst Bessel” 2nd SS Infantry Division “Latvia” 1st SS Infantry Division “Estonia” 1st Albanian SS Mountain Division “Skanderbeg”

Volunteer Cavalry Division "Maria Teresa"

SS Mountain Division "Kama" SS Volunteer Panzer Division "Netherlands"

SS Mountain Division Karstjäger

1st SS Infantry Division "Hunyadi" 2nd SS Infantry Division "Hunyadi" SS Volunteer Infantry Division "Langemark"

SS Volunteer Infantry Division "Wallonia"

1st Infantry Division "Russia"

1st SS Infantry Division "Italy" 2nd SS Infantry Division "Russia"

SS Volunteer Infantry Division Böhmen-Maren SS Volunteer Panzer Division

SS Infantry Division "January 30" SS Infantry Division "Charlemagne"

SS Volunteer Infantry Division "Landstorm-Nederland" SS Police Infantry Division

SS Infantry Division "Dirlewanger" SS Volunteer Cavalry Division "Lützow"

Nibelungi SS Motorized Infantry Division

Date Composition

Outcome

1933	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1939	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1940	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1940	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1940	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1940	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1942	ethnic Germans	capitulated in 1945
1942	Germans, ethnic Germans	capitulated in 1945
1943	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1943	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1942	Germans, Scandinavians	capitulated in 1945
1943	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1943	Yugoslavs	disbanded in 1944
1943	Ukrainians	capitulated in 1945
1943	Latvians, Germans	capitulated in 1945
1943	Germans, ethnic Germans	capitulated in 1945
1943	Germans, ethnic Germans	capitulated in 1945
1944	Germans, ethnic Germans	capitulated in 1945
1944	Latvians	capitulated in 1945
1944	Estonians	capitulated in 1945
1944	Albanians	disbanded in 1944
1944	ethnic Germans, Germans	capitulated in 1945
1944	Yugoslavs	disbanded in 1944
1945	Dutch	capitulated in 1945
1944	Italians, ethnic Germans	disbanded in 1945
1944	Hungarians	disappeared
1944	Hungarians	disappeared
1945	Flemings, Belgians	capitulated in 1945
1945	Walloons, Belgians	capitulated in 1945
1944	Russians	in 1944 became part of Vlasov's army
1945	Italians	disappeared in 1945
1944	Russians	in 1945 became part of the Vlasov army
1945	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1945	Germans, ethnic Germans	capitulated in 1945
1945	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1945	French people	defeated near Berlin in 1945
1945	Dutch	disbanded in 1945
1945	german policemen	disbanded in 1945
1945	the Germans	capitulated in 1945
1945	ethnic Germans	capitulated in 1945
1945	SS cadets	capitulated in 1945

the dignity and meaning of the existence of the SS, gradually began to be pushed into the background by rather unexpected formations: in 1943, the Muslim division "Handshar" was created; in 1944 the Albanian division Skanderbeg, the French division Charlemagne and the Hungarian cavalry division; in 1945, the Croatian Kama division, as well as the Flemish Langemark, Walloon Walloon, Dutch Landstorm-Netherland, Italian, and other divisions. ". This is how the Turkestan and Caucasian regiments, the Indian legion, the battalion of Norwegian skiers, two Romanian battalions, one Bulgarian and three Cossack divisions appeared. All these motley troops were dressed in the uniform of the SS, which three or four years earlier was intended only for the "elite of the Germanic race",

In October 1944, when the number of SS troops was the highest, they included more than a million people (38 divisions; by the end of the war, the SS troops had 40 divisions and 594 thousand people. Losses amounted to 1 October 1944 320 thousand people.) Everywhere the appearance of these "elite troops" was accompanied by the most severe actions.

Wolf, Carl

(KhL/OITT), SS Oberstgruppenführer (Colonel General), Himmler's closest assistant and chief of personal staff in 1935-43, and since 1939 liaison officer between Himmler and Hitler. Born in 1906. Together with Himmler, he participated in the creation of the SS, developed their Teutonic mystical symbols. In 1931 he became an honorary member of the SS (one of those who were invited to join the SS because of their aristocratic family ties and the corresponding Nordic appearance). Until 1931, Wolf was adjutant to General Franz von Epp, commander of troops in Bavaria.

In 1943 Wolf was appointed German military commandant Sev. Italy, while also being the plenipotentiary ambassador of the Third Reich under Mussolini's government on the eve of its collapse. But the real power here was in the hands of Field Marshal Kesselring, commander of the stationed in the North. Italy by German troops.

Despite Hitler's strict ban on establishing any kind of contact with representatives of the Western powers, Wolff offered the West, through the mediation of Pope Leo XII , his services in order to end hostilities on the Western Front. On March 6, 1945, as the authorized SS for Army Group C, Wolf met Allen Dulles in Zurich and presented him with a draft cessation of hostilities in Italy. Army Group C was to be able to withdraw unhindered to Germany, and the Anglo-American troops under the command of Alexander of Tunis would be able to advance towards the Southern Alps. After repeated meetings with Dulles on the eve of the end of World War II, the capitulation to the Americans was signed (April 1945).

Wolf was arrested by the American military administration, but released in August 1949. Then Wolf went into hiding for many years, and only in 1967 was extradited to the FRG. A jury in Munich sentenced him to life imprisonment.

Wolfschants

("VoІІІессІаnge" - "Wolf's Lair"), Hitler's headquarters in Rastenburg, Vost. Prussia, at the end of the 2nd World War. See also the July plot of 1944', the Rastenburg meeting.

Wolfschlucht

(“UvoIessiiІtssNі” - “Wolf Gorge”), Hitler's headquarters, located in Bruy-de-Pech (VgtsІu-sІtssіe) from June 6 to June 25, 1940.

"Oriental Medal"

(OzіtesіаіNe), an award awarded to servicemen who participated in the battles on the Eastern Front during the 2nd World War. In the soldier's jargon, this medal was called the "Order of Frost" or "Order of Frozen Meat" (Oetrіreg Peisschorcien), in memory of the harsh climatic conditions in which the Nazi armies found themselves in Russia.

World Anti-Jewish League

One of the anti-Semitic organizations headquartered in Berlin. Its members were united by hatred of Judaism and contempt for all Jews. In 1935, the editor-in-chief of the journal "Der Stürmer" Julius Streicher, one of theNazi leadership, declared at a mass rally held by the World Anti-Jewish League that the Jews were destined for the greatest ritual murder of all time - a new war. He called the Jews the eternal racial enemies of the Germans, "the personification of pernicious capitalism and diabolical Marxism." It was the Jews, he said, who were responsible for inflation, depression and unemployment. Streicher claimed that 90% of all German prostitutes were involved in their profession by Jews. The members of the World Anti-Jewish League fully supported these and similar accusations against the Jews living in the Third Reich.

"Flash"

Assassination attempt on Hitler on March 13, 1943.

"Second Book"

(/veiiez Wiesb), Volume 2 of Hitler 's Mein Kampf, published in 1927 under the title The National Socialist Movement. Contains mainly Hitler's analysis and reflections on the prospects of his movement. Has sections; “Worldview and the Party”, “Subordinate to the State and Citizen of the State”, “Personality and National State Thought”, “Worldview and Organization”, “Struggle at an Early Stage: the Meaning of Lively Speech”, “Struggle against the Red Front”, “The Strong is Especially Strong when he is alone”, “Main thoughts on the essence and organization of the SA”, “Federalism as a mask”, “German alliance policy after the war”, “Orientation to the East and Eastern policy”, “Protection is necessary as a law”.

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Galen, Clemens August graph von

(Caien), (1878-1946), cardinal, archbishop of the Ministry. Born March 16, 1878 in Dinklage. He began his activity in the Catholic Church in 1904 as a chaplain in Münster. In 1919 he became a priest in Berlin, since 1933 he has been a ministerial archbishop. In 1933 he sent a message to the flock against the Nazi racial doctrine. Galen constantly criticized the Nazi government for actions he considered incompatible with Christianity. In 1941 he publicly condemned the destruction of terminally ill prisoners (euthanasia). Cardinal Galen died in Münster on March 22, 1946.

Galland, Adolf

(OaIIapsI), German fighter pilot, one of the organizers of the Luftwaffe. Born in 1911 in Westerholt, district of Recklinghausen. He studied at the Hindenburg (now Zabrze, Poland). In 1932, as a gliding instructor, he joined the commercial airline Lufthansa. In 1935 he was seriously injured in a plane crash, but soon returned to flight work, already in the Luftwaffe. He made about 300 sorties as part of the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War. In the first months of the 2nd World War he was engaged in the training of flight personnel, later he was a pilot of the 26th Fighter Air Group. He took part in air battles on almost all fronts, including the British Isles, during the Battle of England.Shot down 103 enemy aircraft, awarded many orders. Galland was the second Luftwaffe pilot to receive the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds. In November 1941 he replaced Werner Mölders as commander of the fighter aviation. He remained in this post until January 1945, when Goering actually removed him from his post, unexpectedly sending him on vacation and not appointing him a successor.

On April 26, 1945, Galland was shot down in battle by the American P-51 Mustang, but survived. After the war, he explained the failure of the Luftwaffe operations in the British Isles by the fact that it was used to solve strategic problems instead of tactical ones. In addition, he said, squadron commanders and air groups that take years to train have all died in dogfights over the islands.

Halder, Franz

(Наісіег), (1884-1972), colonel-general (1940) of the German army. Chief of the General Staff of the Ground Forces in 1938-42. Born June 30 

1884 in Würzburg in a military family. In the army since 1902, graduated from the Bavarian Military Academy (1914), participant in the 1st World War. In 1926, Halder was appointed Chief Quartermaster of the Reichswehr. In 1936, Hitler offered him a similar post in the Wehrmacht, from October 1937 Halder was the second, and from February 1938 - the first quartermaster. On August 27, 1938, Halder was appointed Chief of the General Staff of the Ground Forces in place of the retired General Beck.

Like most senior military officials, Halder, being a soldier of the old school, was disgusted by the senseless brutality of the Nazi regime and did not approve of party interference in army affairs. He, like General von Brauchitsch, had to compromise between the oath given to the Führer and the rejection of Nazism: "Breaking the oath to the Führer has no justification." He made it clear that he was ready to support a military coup in the country, but he did not want to hear about any attempt on Hitler's life. He led the first officer conspiracy on the eve of the Munich Agreement of 1938 (see Halder conspiracy).After the conclusion of the Munich Treaty, Halder, like von Brauchitsch, actually retired from the resistance movement. He realized that it was impossible to overthrow the Nazi regime without any fundamental changes—be it a diplomatic or military defeat capable of destroying Hitler's prestige in the eyes of the army and the people—is impossible.

Being an opponent of the war that began in 1939 and resisting Hitler's aggressive policy, Halder, however, continued to carry out the orders of the Fuhrer. He actively participated in the creation of the Nazi army, the development and implementation of plans of aggression against Poland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Yugoslavia, Greece and the USSR. After the failure of Hitler's strategy in the fall of 1942, Halder was removed from office on September 24, 1942.

In 1944, Halder was arrested on suspicion of involvement in the July 1944 conspiracy and remained in Dachau until the end of the war . On April 28, 1945, he was liberated by the Americans. As a witness, Halder testified at the Nuremberg trials,where he stated that, if Hitler’s intervention in military affairs had not happened, Germany in 1945 could have made peace on “honorable” conditions: “Although it would not have been possible to win the war, it was at least possible to avoid the shame of defeat.” Being in American captivity, he participated in the writing of military history works. Later he wrote the pamphlet "Hitler as a commander" (1949), in which he tried to present Hitler as the only culprit in the defeat of Germany and prove the infallibility of the German generals and his strategy. The country was stabbed in the back, he argued, but not by the Social Democrats of that period, but by none other than Adolf Hitler.

“War Diary” (vol. 1-3, 1962-64) by Halder is an important source on the history of the 2nd World War.

Halder, conspiracy

One of the failed attempts to remove Hitler from power in the fall of 1938. The conspirators were led by General Franz Halder, who replaced General Beck as Chief of the General Staff of the Ground Forces . Among his like-minded people were: Major General Hans Oster, chief of staff of the Abwehr; Hans Bernd Gisevius, who collaborated with the Abwehr; dismissed from the presidency of the Reichsbank, Dr. Hjalmar Schacht and Major General of the Wehrmacht Erwin (ron Witzleben. Enlist the support of the Commander of the Wehrmacht, General von BrauchitschHalder never succeeded. The participants in the conspiracy intended to overthrow the government as a result of a military coup and establish a parliamentary regime of government. However, the matter never progressed further than discussions.

A heavy blow to their plans was delivered by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, who flew to Germany to appease Hitler. The signing of the Munich Agreement of 1938 finally frustrated all the plans of the conspirators.

Hamilton, Duke

(Natiіop), (1900-1971), Lord of Scotland, with whom Rudolf Hess intended to make contact in 1941 , secretly flying to Great Britain (see Hess flight). Graduated from Oxford University. He was elected to the House of Commons from the Conservative Party. During the 1936 Olympic Games, Duke Hamilton met Albrecht Haushofer, son of the professor and founder of geopolitics, Karl Haushofer.In September 1940, Hess asked Haushofer to approach the Duke with an offer to meet in Portugal to discuss the possibility of peace negotiations. Hess was concerned that "the two Aryan master races" were at war with each other. Duke Hamilton, on the advice of the British intelligence services, was already ready to agree, but on May 10, 1940, Hess unexpectedly flew to Scotland himself. He hoped that Hamilton would be able to put pressure on Prime Minister Winston Churchill to conclude an immediate truce with the Third Reich and unite in the fight against the Soviet Union.

Hanfstaengl, Ernst Franz Zedgwick

Hanfstaengl, (NapTziaepdI), (P u ts i ) (1887-1975), Hitler's unofficial court jester in the early days of the Nazi movement. Born in Munich to a mixed American-German family. His father was a well-known art dealer. Ernst studied at the Bavarian Gymnasium of Emperor Wilhelm, where his class teacher was the father of Heinrich Himmler. Since he was destined to take over a branch of the family business on 5th Avenue in New York, Ernst was sent in 1905 to Harvard University, graduating in 1909. He spent all four years of World War I in the USA and was disappointed in his inability to serve the country of his ancestors in a time of crisis. After the war he returned to Munich. Hanfstaengl left Germany at the height of her imperial glory, and when he returned, he found the country plunged into a state of complete collapse.

Being surrounded by Hitler, this almost two-meter giant, with a huge head, protruding jaw and thick hair, resigned himself to the nickname “Putsi”. He was a gifted pianist and masterfully performed, despite his huge hands, the works of Liszt and Wagner. In the political chaos of Munich in the early 20s. Hanfstaengl was inexplicably imbued with sympathy for Hitler, then an unknown aspiring politician. The only literary gifted person in Hitler's entourage, Hanfstaengl introduced the ignorant Austrian into the Munich artistic and cultural circles. After the suppression of the "Beer Putsch" of 1923 , Hitler took temporary refuge in the Hanfstaengl villa in the Bavarian Alps. Hanfstaengl visited Hitler in Landsberg Prison and helped him recover from his release.

Both before and after the Nazis came to power, Hanfstaengl remained among Hitler's inner circle. He was a cheerful and funny companion during political campaigns. Thanks to his timely jokes and unusual sense of humor in Nazi circles, he was perceived as something of a Shakespearean jester, capable of providing relaxation to an exhausted leader. Hanfstaengl did not stop for hours. For this, he was rewarded with a minor position as foreign press secretary of the NSDAP. In this position, which he held until he left Germany, Hanfstaengl sought to benefit the Nazi movement with the help of his many influential friends abroad.

By the end of 1934, relations between Hitler and Hanfstaengl cooled noticeably. Puqi tried to delicately influence the Fuhrer in order to somewhat moderate his political, religious and racial views, while Hitler did not allow any interference in his affairs and was indignant at the slightest objection. On one

Hitler, his personal pilot Baur and the Fuhrer's pianist Ernst Hanfstaengl (far right) fly from Munich to Berlin

from crowded receptions, Hanfstaengl publicly called the Minister of Public Education and Propaganda, Dr. Goebbels, a pig. This kind of frankness did not win him the love of the Nazis. In March 1937, Hanfstaengl, sensing the impending danger, left Germany. Subsequently, he learned that a plan had already been conceived to eliminate him - they were going to throw him out of the plane. On April 19, 1937, Göring wrote to Hanfstaengl, assuring him that it was all intended as a harmless joke: “We wanted to give you the opportunity to consider some of the overly bold statements that you allowed yourself. And nothing more. I give you my word of honor that you are free to remain here among us, as you have always done. Forget your suspicions and act wisely. I hope you will take my words favorably.”

During World War II Hanfstaengl served in the United States at the White House as an expert on Nazi affairs. After the war he was interned. Freed, he returned to his homeland. In 1957 he published in London the book Hitler: The Lost Years. Hanfstaengl died on November 6, 1975 in Munich.

Gau

(Sai), the main administrative-territorial unit in Nazi Germany. The entire territory of the country was divided into 42 Gaus (in 1933 - 32 Gaus), each headed by a Gauleiter. The organization of the “Foreign Germans” was equated to a separate Gau . The oblast was divided into districts (Kgeize), the district into local groups (Ogizdgirre), the group into cells (HeIIep), and the cell into blocks. At the head of each territorial unit was respectively Gauleiter, Kreisleiter, Ortsgruppenleiter, Zellenleiter and Blockleiter.

Table 2. Gau and Gauleiters

Gau	Gauleiter	Center	Number of districts	Number of places, groups
"Foreign Organization"	Ernst Wilhelm Bohle	Berlin	—	—
Baden	Robert Wagner	Karlsruhe	27	1040
Bayreuth	Fritz Wachtler	Bayreuth	39	1531
Berlin	Paul Joseph Goebbels	Berlin	10	269
Wartland	Arthur G. Raiser	Late	—	—
Weser-Ems	Paul Wegener	Oldenburg	22	515
Vienna	Baldur von Schirach	Vienna	10	426
Upper Danube	August Eigruber	Linz	16	548
Upper Silesia	Fritz Braht	Katowice	—	—    I
Westphalia North	Alfred Mayer	Munster	13	690
Westphalia South	Albert Hoffman	Bochum	18	385
Vost. Hanover	Otto Telshov	Lüneburg	16	453
Vost. Prussia	Erich Koch	Königsberg	37	613
Württemberg- Hohenzollern	Wilhelm Moore	Stuttgart	35	1036
Halle-Mersenburg	Joachim Albrecht Eggeling	Halle	17	683
Hamburg	Karl Kaufman	Hamburg	19	195
Hesse-Kassel	Karl Weinrich	Kassel	15	332
Hesse-Nassau	Jacob Sprenger	Frankfurt am Main	26	1279
Danzig Hall. Prussia	Albert Forster	Danzig	—	—
Düsseldorf	Frccrih Karl Florian	Düsseldorf	7	156
Salzburg	Gustav Scheel	Salzburg	5	139
Carinthia	Friedrich Rainer	Klagenfurt	8	222
Cologne-Aachen	Josef Groe	Cologne	18	287
Magdeburg-Anhalt	Rudolf Jordan	Dessau	18	560
Main-Franconia	Otto Hellmuth	Würzburg	14	317
Mark-Braccenburg	Emil Stürz	Berlin VV35	31	1582
Mecklenburg	Frztrich Hildebratsdt	Schwerin	13	589
Mosel	Gustav Simon	Koblenz	18	725
Munich-Upper. Bavaria	Paul Giesler	Munich	25	562
Lower Danube	Hugo Juri	Vienna	24	926
Lower Silesia	Carl Hanke	Breslau	—	—
Ostmark	Josef Burkel	Neuschgadt	18	494
Pomerania	Franz Schwed-Coburg	Szczecin	31	974
Saxony	Martin Mugsman	Dresden	27	1420
Sudetenland	Conrad Henlein	Reichenberg	39	3164
Tyrol-Vorargberg	Franc Hofer	Innsbruck	10	208
Thuringia	Fritz Zaukel	Weimar	21	1363
Franconia	Carl Holtz	Nuremberg	18	193
Swabia	Carl Wahl	Augsburg	15	637
Schleswig-Golstein	Heinrich Loise	Keel	21	793
Styria	Siegfrtsd Uiberreiter	Graz	17	322
Essen	Josef Terboven	Essen	9	180
South Hannover-Brunschwick	Hartman Lauterbaher	Hanover	26	782

Gauger, Martin

(Saideg), (1905-1941), member of the Kreisau group. In 1934, as District Attorney of Munich-Gladbach, he refused to take an oath of allegiance to Hitler, for which he was dismissed from his post. Then, while working as a legal adviser in Beckentniskirche, he joined the resistance movement. In May 1940, Gauger swam across the Rhine to get to the Netherlands, but ended up in the hands of the SS men who had already entered the territory of this country. He was sent to the Buchenwald concentration camp, where he died on July 14, 1941.

Gauleiter

(Saiiiieg), an official in Nazi Germany, who exercised full power in the administrative-territorial unit entrusted to him - Gau. Appointed directly by the Fuhrer. Subordinated to the Reichsleiter and bore full responsibility for the part of sovereignty delegated to him

Hauptmann, Gerhard

(Nairitapp), (1862-1946), German writer, poet, playwright, patriarch of German literature, Nobel Prize winner (1912). Born November 15, 1862 in Obersalzbrunn, Silesia, in the family of an innkeeper. He studied at the art school in Breslau and the University of Jena. Appeared in literature in the 80s. Fame Hauptmann brought the drama "Before Sunrise" (1889), which depicts the collapse of the bourgeois family. Hauptmann soon became the head of German naturalism. The dramas Carter Genschel (1898), Rose Bernd (1903), and Rats (1911) contained criticism of the mores of Kaiser Germany, but for this period of Hauptmann's work, the features of naturalism are more characteristic - the absolutization of biological laws, the passivity of the characters. The theme of the drama The Weavers (1892) is the uprising of the Silesian weavers of 1844. The comedy "The Beaver Fur Coat" (1893) is a satirical denunciation of Wilhelm's Germany. Along with everyday plays, Hauptmann wrote poetic dramas, fairy tales, marked by the influence of symbolism - "The Drowned Bell" (1896), "Poor Heinrich" (1902).

In the spirit of irrationalism, the dramas The Winter Ballad (1917), The White Savior (1920), Indipodi (1920), as well as the novels The Holy Fool Emmanuel Quint (1910), The Island of the Great Mother (1924) were written. Hauptmann's prose, with the exception of The Heretic from Soana (1918), is inferior to the artistic power of his dramaturgy.

Hauptmann was one of the few major German writers who remained in Nazi Germany after Hitler came to power. While Thomas Mann and other equally significant cultural figures left the country, Hauptmann, unwilling to leave, eventually became increasingly dependent on the Nazi regime. During the period of Nazism, he moved away from contemporary topics. Wrote the autobiographical novel "The Adventure of My Youth" (1937). In the dramas "Daughter of the Cathedral" (1938), "Twilight" (1937, published in 1947) he tried to argue with the authorities of the Third Reich. He created a dramatic tetralogy based on the plot of the Greek legend of Atrids (“Iphi of the Genius in Aulis”, 1940; “Iphigenia in Delphi”, 1941, “The Death of Agamemnon”, 1942; “Electra”, 1944). Wrote the poem “The Great Dream”. Hauptmann died at Agnetendorf on June 6, 1946.

SS Hauptsturmführer

(Nair_z_igt Tiek_geg-ZZ), a military rank in the SS, corresponding to the combined arms rank of captain. ।   

Gauführer

(SaiTiebgeg), the same as igauleiter.

G austudentenfürung

(SaizІisІepіepTieІіgipd), the Nazi body of administrative control over the activities of the National Socialist German Student League.

Haha, Emil

(NasKa), (1872-1945), President of Czechoslovakia, after she

returned to the protectorate of the Third Reich. Born July 12, 1872 in Schweinitz, Bohemia. Studied law, since 1925 Chairman of the Supreme Court. November 30, 1938 replaced Eduard Benes as president of Czechoslovakia. He tried to preserve the independence of the rest of the country after the German occupation of the Sudetenland. On March 15, 1939, after German troops had taken up positions along the border of Bohemia, Hácha and his Foreign Minister Frantisek Chvalkovsky were summoned to Berlin, where Hitler forced him to sign a treaty under which German troops were to occupy the rest of Czechoslovakia as well. After military units were brought into Prague, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist as a sovereign state.

Hitler left behind him the nominal post of president of the "Reich Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia", occupying which Gakh called on the population to support the policies of the Third Reich. However, the vast majority continued to consider Beneš their president. Hakh died in the Prague prison on June 27, 1945.

Goebbels, Paul Joseph

(Colesleis), (1897-1945), high-ranking leader of the Nazi Party, chief propagandist of the Third Reich, close ally and friend of Hitler. Goebbels was born October 29, 1897 in Reidt, Rhineland. His father worked as an accountant and was a very pious man, he hoped that his son would become a priest of the Roman Catholic Church. But Goebbel, dreaming of a career as a writer or journalist, after graduating from the burgerschule and the gymnasium in Reidt, preferred to study the humanities. With the financial support of the Albert Magnus Society, from 1917 to 1921 he studied philosophy, German studies, history and literature at the universities of Freiburg, Bonn, Würzburg, Cologne, Munich and Heidelberg. At the University of Heidelberg, under the guidance of Professor Friedrich Gundolf, a literary historian, a Jew, Goebbels defended his thesis in 1921.

Paul Joseph Goebbel

certification in romantic drama and acquired a degree. His own literary opuses were repeatedly rejected by the editors of liberal publishing houses and newspapers.

When World War I began, Goebbels was declared unfit for military service due to lameness (he was disabled from birth), which hurt his pride, because he considered it a shame for himself to be unable to serve his country during the war. He always perceived his own physical inferiority very sharply and painfully, because he constantly felt behind his back the humiliating mockery of his comrades, who called him “the little mouse doctor” behind his back. Injured pride gave rise to a deep-rooted hatred in him, aggravated in the future by the need to perform in front of a healthy, blue-eyed "Aryan" audience.

After the First World War, having unsuccessfully tried his luck in the field of poetry and drama (his sentimental tearful play "The Wanderer" ("Oer Väpstierer") was rejected by the Frankfurt "Schauspielhaus"), Goebbels found an outlet for his energy in politics. In 1922, he joined the NSDAP, initially joining its left, socialist wing, whose leaders at that time were the Strasser brothers. In 1924, having moved to the Ruhr, Goebbels tried his hand at journalism - as an editor of Völkische Freiheit (People's Freedom) in Elberfeld, then in Strasser's '7-/S- Brief.To this period, colored by the furious controversy between the Strassers and Hitler about the degree of socialism in the National Socialist movement, belongs the famous saying of Goebbels; "Bourgeois Adolf Hitler must be expelled from the National Socialist Party!"

However, in 1926 his political sympathies changed sharply in favor of Hitler, whom he began to perceive "either as Christ or as St. John." "Adolf Hitler, I love you!" he wrote in his diary. Goebbels dedicated one of his first books to Hitler "with deep gratitude." His praise of the Fuhrer was ardent: “Even before the trial in Munich, you appeared before us in the guise of a leader. What you said there are the greatest revelations that have not been heard in Germany since the time of Bismarck. God has given you words to name the ills of Germany. You started from the bottom, like any truly great leader. And, like every leader, you have become more and more majestic as your tasks have become grander.

Such words could not fail to attract the favorable attention of Hitler. In 1926 he appointed Goebbelsagauleiter of the NSDAP in Berlin-Brandenburg. It was in the capital that Goebbels' oratorical abilities were revealed, which predetermined his future fate as the main agitator and propagandist of the Nazi Party, and later of the entire Reich. From 1927 to 1935 he was the chief editor of the weekly newspaper "Angrif" -mouthpiece of the philosophy of National Socialism. In 1928, Goebbels was elected to the Reichstag from the Nazi Party. At numerous rallies and demonstrations, this little man with a long nose, constantly dressed in an overcoat too long for him, with a strong and harsh voice, covering the Berlin city government, Jews and communists with sarcasm and insults, managed to attract wide attention to himself. He "revealed" Horst Wessel, a Nazi felon killed in a street fight, as a political martyr and promoted Wessel's nasty poetry as the official party anthem. Hitler was so impressed and delighted with the activities of Goebbels in Berlin that he appointed him in 1929 as the Imperial head of propaganda for the Nazi Party. It was Goebbels, like no one else, laurels belong to Hitler for such a rapid advancement to the heights of political power. In 1932, he organized and led Hitler's election campaign for the nomination for the presidency, doubling his number of votes. His propaganda was of decisive importance on the eve of Hitler's accession to the office of Chancellor. Skillfully adopting modern propaganda techniques from the Americans and slightly changing them to fit the German reality, Goebbels demonstrated amazing ability to psychologically influence the audience. His "Ten Commandments of the National Socialist", written at the dawn of the Nazi movement, became the prototype of the ideological program of the party: His propaganda was of decisive importance on the eve of Hitler's accession to the office of Chancellor. Skillfully adopting modern propaganda techniques from the Americans and slightly changing them to fit the German reality, Goebbels demonstrated amazing ability to psychologically influence the audience. His "Ten Commandments of the National Socialist", written at the dawn of the Nazi movement, became the prototype of the ideological program of the party: His propaganda was of decisive importance on the eve of Hitler's accession to the office of Chancellor. Skillfully adopting modern propaganda techniques from the Americans and slightly changing them to fit the German reality, Goebbels demonstrated amazing ability to psychologically influence the audience. His "Ten Commandments of the National Socialist", written at the dawn of the Nazi movement, became the prototype of the ideological program of the party:

Joseph Goebbels at the premiere of the play "Schlageter" based on the play by X. Jost at the Berlin Drama Theater, 1933.

1. Your fatherland is Germany. Love him above all and more in deed than in words.

2. The enemies of Germany are your enemies. Hate them with all your heart!

3. Every compatriot, even the poorest, is a part of Germany. Love him like yourself!

4. Demand only duties. Then Germany will find justice!

5. Be proud of Germany! You should be proud of the fatherland for which millions gave their lives.

6. Whoever dishonors Germany dishonors you and your ancestors. Point your fist against him!

7. Beat the scoundrel every time! Remember, if someone takes away your rights, you have the right to destroy him.

8. Don't let the Jews fool you. Be on the lookout with Berliner Tageblat!

9. Do what you need without shame when it comes to New Germany!

Goebbels' daughters Helga and Hilda congratulate Hitler on his birthday

1. Believe in the future. Then you will be the winner!

On March 13, 1933, after becoming Chancellor, Hitler appointed Goebbels Reich Minister of Public Education and Propaganda, instructing him to use all means to implement the program . In this activity, Goebbels demonstrated that for him there are no principles or morals. He subordinated all elements of the life of the country - the press, cinema, theater, radio, sports - to National Socialist ideals and became, in fact, the dictator of the cultural life of the nation. To please Hitler, he launched vicious and violent attacks against the Jews. In May 1933, at the initiative of Goebbels, several German universities carried out public book burnings. The fires burned the works of Thomas and Heinrich Mann, Bertolt Brecht, Franz Kafka, Remarque, Feuchtwanger and many other authors who proclaimed the ideas of freedom and humanism.

Along with Heinrich Himmler and, later, Martin Bormann, Goebbels became one of Hitler's closest and most influential advisers. Magda Quant, linking her fate with Goebbels, divorced a Jewish businessman, and their six children became special favorites among the Fuhrer's inner circle in Berchtesgaden. His numerous connections with theater and film actresses were widely known in the country. Once he was beaten by an offended famous film actor who could not stand the courtship of Goebbels for his wife. His relationship with the Czech actress Lydia Barova nearly led to a divorce until Hitler intervened. Goebbels was constantly at odds with other Nazi leaders, especially Hermann Göring and Joachim von Ribbentrop, who were irritated by his closeness to Hitler.

During the 2nd World War, Goebbels was given the task of maintaining the morale of the nation. His propaganda machine was

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The poster, signed by Goebbels, inspires the Germans that it is their duty to support Hitler in the 1935 elections. aimed at causing discontent with Soviet Russia and encouraging the Germans to hold out until the final victory. This task became more and more difficult as the tide of the war turned in favor of the Allies. Goebbels worked vigorously to keep the German morale up by constantly reminding them of their fate in the event of surrender. After the failure of the July 1944 conspiracy , Hitler appointed Goebbels as the chief commissioner for mobilization for "total war" and instructed him to gather all the material and human resources to fight to the last drop of blood. But it was too late: Germany was on the verge of destruction.

In April 1945, true to his sense of mystical arrogance, Goebbels advised Hitler to stay in Berlin in the Führerbunker and, if necessary, meet there the dazzling mystical "Twilight of the Gods" (Soyersattegind). Only in this way, Goebbels urged, could the legend of the great Hitler be preserved. The Fuhrer, frightened by the possibility of being put naked in a circus cage by the Russians, agreed.One after another, the newly minted Nazi leaders left their leader, but Goebbels remained.When President Franklin Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, Goebbels, in a state of euphoria, compared this event with a similar one in the fate of Friedrich Great, ending in victory Hitler's state of mind perked up for a while. In the political testament (see.Hitler's political testament) Hitler appointed Goebbels as his successor as Chancellor of the Reich. Goebbels supplemented this with his own propaganda gesture (see Goebbels' testament). Immediately after Hitler's suicide, Goebbels and Bormann made one last attempt to negotiate with the Russians. When it became clear that this was impossible, Goebbels decided to commit suicide. Magda Goebbels poisoned six of her children and killed herself. Then committed suicide and Goebbels.

See Propaganda in the Third Reich.

Goebbels, testament

On April 29, 1945, Dr. Goebbels, as a witness, signed his Führer's political testament (see Hitler's political testament). He then wrote an addendum to the Fuhrer's will in which he gave his own explanations. The text read:

The Führer ordered me to leave Berlin in the event of a breakthrough in the defense of the imperial capital and take over the leadership of the government appointed by him.

For the first time in my life, I have to categorically refuse to obey the Führer's order. My wife and children also refuse to comply with it. Otherwise - not to mention the fact that we could never force ourselves to leave the Fuhrer at his most difficult moment, simply for human reasons and out of personal devotion - for the rest of my life I would feel like a dishonorable traitor and vile scoundrel who lost together with self-respect, the respect of my fellow citizens, which should have become a prerequisite for my personal service to the cause of the organization of the future German nation and the German state.

In the atmosphere of feverish betrayal that surrounds the Fuhrer in these critical days, there should be at least a few people who would remain unconditionally loyal to him to death, despite the fact that this contradicts the official, even so reasonably justified order set out by him in his political testament.

I believe that by doing this I will render the best service to the German people and their future, for for the hard times to come, examples are even more important than people. There will always be people who will show the nation the way to freedom. But the organization of our new people's national life would be impossible if it did not develop on the basis of clear, understandable patterns for everyone.

For this reason, I am with my wife and for the benefit of my children,

Reinhard Heydrich

who are too small to speak for themselves, but who would unconditionally agree with this decision if they were old enough, I declare the final decision not to leave the imperial capital even if it falls, and rather, after the Führer, end a life that for I personally would no longer be of any value if I could not spend it in the service of the Führer by staying near him.

Done at Berlin on 29 April 1945 at 5:30 am.

Doctor Goebbels.

Heydrich, Reinhard

(Neusigis), (1904-1942), chief of the Main Directorate of Imperial Security (RSHA), deputy imperial protector of Bohemia and Moravia, one of the main initiators of the creation of a system of concentration camps. Born March 7, 1904 in Halle in the family of the director of the conservatory Bruno Richard Heydrich, which was dominated by an atmosphere of admiration for classical music and culture in general. Heydrich received an excellent education, was unusually musical, and played the violin superbly.

From a young age, Heydrich became interested in politics. In 1918-19 he was a member of the National Association of Pan-German Youth - the "German National Youth League" in Halle. Considering this union too moderate, in 1920 he joined the “German People's Defense and Offensive League”. In the same year, eager to participate more actively in the political life that was raging around, Heydrich became a liaison in the Lucius division, which was part of the volunteer detachments in Halle . In 1921 he created a new association, the German People's Youth Detachment. Working in these organizations, Heydrich became interested in extremist theories of "patriotic" movements imbued with the spirit of militarism, which

Reinhard and Lina Heydrich attending a concert in Prague, a few days before the attempt on Heydrich's life

had communication with the officers of the volunteer detachments “Lucius 1 '

In the spring of 1922, Heydrich was admitted to the imperial navy. The career of the young sailor was successful: in 1924 he was a cadet of the naval school, in 1926 he was a lieutenant, in 1928 he was a senior lieutenant. In 1931, after a scandalous love story with the daughter of a senior officer, the court of honor, presided over by the future Admiral Raeder , considered Heydrich's behavior unworthy and recommended that he resign in order to avoid bigger troubles. In 1932, Heydrich, who was on the street, joined the SS, where Himmler drew attention to him and soon made him his closest assistant - in April 1934 he appointed him chief of the Gestapo central service. For Himmler, the tall, athletic, fair-haired Heydrich was the standard of the Nordic race.

In 1934, during the events of the Night of the Long Knives, Heydrich played a decisive role in the destruction of the Berlin stormtrooper organization. June 17, 1936 he was appointed head of the secret police (zipo) and the SD.

In 1940, Heydrich became president of the International Criminal Police Commission, and in this position began organizing the German espionage system in other countries. In 1941 he was promoted to the rank of SS-Obergruppenführer (general).

By this time Heydrich had become the chief administrator of the concentration camp system; he created the first ghetto for Jews. September 27, 1941 Hitler appointed him Deputy Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia. At the January 20, 1942 Wannsee meeting, at which Heydrich made a presentation, he was appointed head of the program for the extermination of European Jews (see "Final Solution"). The events connected with this action in Czechoslovakia, carried out with cynical cruelty, served as the reason for organizing a conspiracy and an attempt on Heydrich by members of the Czechoslovak resistance movement.

Early in the morning of May 27, 1942, Heydrich was returning from his country house in an open Mercedes in the direction of Hradcany, the old royal castle in Prague, where his residence was located. At the entrance to Prague, two people dressed in working blue overalls jumped up to the car. One of them shot at Heydrich and the driver, and the other threw a bomb under the car. Heydrich, who managed to shoot one of the attackers, was seriously wounded by shrapnel in the chest and stomach.

On May 30, 1942, the German Bureau of Information published the following bulletin in Berlin: “On May 27, in Prague, an attempt was made by unknown persons on the life of the Imperial Deputy Protector of Bohemia and Moravia, SS Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich. SS-Obergruppenführer Heydrich was wounded, but his life was out of danger. A bonus of 10 million crowns is set for the extradition of the participants in the attempt.”

Despite the urgent operation performed by the first surgeon of Prague, Professor Hochlbaum, on June 4, 1942, Heydrich died. In a mourning speech, Hitler called Heydrich "a man with an iron heart."

The death of Heydrich served as a signal for mass bloody repressions against the civilian population of Czechoslovakia.

Gelldorf, Wolf Heinrich Count von

(NeIIogT), (1896-1944), prefect of the Berlin police (police president), participant in a conspiracy against Hitler. Born October 14, 1896 in Merseburg. Participated in the 1st World War, in 1916 he was the commander of a machine-gun company. He was awarded the Iron Cross I and II degree. After the war, Gelldorf joined the Rossbach group, one of the many organizations of the "Volunteer Corps", and participated in street battles with the communists in the Rhineland. After participating in the Kapp Putsch in 1920, he fled to Italy. Returning to Germany in 1924, he was elected to the Prussian Landtag. In 1926 Helldorf joined

NSDAP, and in 1931 became the head of the SA in Berlin. In 1933, after Hitler came to power, von Helldorf was appointed to high posts in the SA and SS in Berlin-Brandenburg, was an SS Gruppenführer (lieutenant general) and an SS Obergruppenführer (full general). November 11, 1933 was elected to the Reichstag from the Nazi Party. From March 1933 to July 1935 he was the police president of Potsdam, and from 1935 he headed the Berlin police.

From the beginning, Count Gelldorf disagreed with many of the methods of the Nazi regime. During the terrible “Kristallnacht” on November 9, 1938, he was not in Berlin, but upon his return, having convened a meeting of the police officer corps, he indignantly condemned the passivity of the police during the Jewish pogroms. To the horror of those present, he stated that if he had been present in the city , then I would have ordered the personnel to shoot all the rioters and robbers.

Count Gelldorf took part in the 1944 July Plot against Hitler, after which he was arrested, tortured and eventually executed on August 15, 1944.

"Gelb"

(“EаІІ СІІЬ”—Yellow Plan), the code name for the plan for the lightning war of Nazi Germany against France in 1940. The development of the plan was started in October 1939 after the end of the Polish campaign. Its main provisions were set out in Hitler's directives (No. 6 of October 9, No. 7 of October 18 and No. 8 of November 20, 1939). “I decided, without wasting any more time, to go on the offensive,” Hitler wrote. -Further delay will not only entail the termination of Belgian and, probably, Dutch neutrality, which the Allies will not fail to take advantage of, but also a further build-up of the enemy’s military power, which will undermine the confidence of neutral states in the final victory of Germany and will greatly complicate the entry of Italy as a full-fledged ally, into the war." The final version of the plan was reflected in the directive of the OKH (high command of the ground forces) dated February 24, 1940. The Gelb plan provided for the offensive of the main forces of the German troops (2 army groups consisting of 5 armies and a tank group supported by 2 air fleets) on the front from the Northern sea ​​to the southern border of Luxembourg through the territory of the neutral states of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. The direction of the main attack was planned south of Liège-Charleroi with the crossing of the river. Meuse at Dinan and Sedan and the subsequent exit of the main group to the lower reaches of the river. Somme, the defeat of the Anglo-French troops and the successful completion of the war in the West. The start of the offensive was planned for November 12, 1939, then the timing of the offensive was postponed 29 times. To implement the Gelb plan, by May 10, 1940, the German command deployed a grouping of 3 army groups (“A”, “B” and “C”), supported by 2 air fleets (2nd and 3rd); a total of 135.5 divisions, including 10 tank and 6 motorized, 2580 tanks, 3834 aircraft. The Gelb plan was carried out during the French campaign of 1940.

Gemp, Walter

(Setrr), (1878-1939), head of the Berlin fire department. After serving for more than 27 years in the Berlin Fire Department and becoming its leader, Gempp has made it a highly respected organization. Shortly after the Reichstag fire on February 27, 1933, he incurred the wrath of the Nazi authorities by declaring that the fire departments had been notified too late, that Hermann Göring had forbidden him to make full use of personnel and equipment, and that the amount of combustible materials found in the undamaged Reichstag premises was sufficient. to fill the truck. A month later, Gempp was accused of "Marxist subversion and incitement", but he nevertheless testified at the Reichstag fire trial. Gempp's incriminating testimony was not forgotten by high Nazi leaders. He was arrested in September 1937 for malpractice, was found guilty, but protested the verdict. On May 2, 1939, before new hearings were to begin, he was found strangled in his prison cell.

Quartermaster General

(Oepegaitsiagііegteіzіeg; (EepOi), senior staff officer responsible for supply at the OKH (high command of the ground forces) and OKL (high command of the air force).

General-Marshal Marshal

(OepegaNeIsItagBsGiaII; CEM), the highest military rank in the German armed forces. In addition to prestige, the Field Marshal received an annual tax-exempt salary of 36,000 Reichsmarks plus allowances. Until the time of the Third Reich, few were awarded such an honor. During the 1st World War, Emperor Wilhelm II awarded this title to only five. Even such a famous and honored general as Er their Ludendorff did not receive this honor. After the defeat of France, Hitler, in a fit of euphoria, on July 19, 1940, awarded the rank of Field Marshal to 12 top commanders of the armed forces. These were:

Walther von Brauchitsch, Wilhelm Keitel, Gerd von Rundstedt, Walther von Reichenau, Fedor von Bock, Wilhelm von Leeb, Wilhelm List, Gunther Hans von Kluge, Erwin von Witzleben, Erhard Milch, Albert Kesselring, Hugo Sperle.

By assigning this title to officers, the Fuhrer hoped to strengthen his influence among the conservative military elite, whom he did not trust.

On January 31, 1943, Hitler conferred this honor on Friedrich von Paulus, in the hope that the encircled armies of the general

la will be able to keep Stalingrad. By this time, Hitler was extremely dissatisfied with the officers who had disappointed him in the Russian campaign. The next day, at a military meeting at the field headquarters, he said: "This was the last one to whom I awarded the rank of field marshal." Despite this statement, on the same day, orders were received to confer the rank of Field Marshal to three more: Ernst von Busch, Ewald von Kleist and Maximilian von Weichs. Later, four more were noted: Walter Model, Ferdinand Scherner, Wolfram von Richthofen and Robert von Greim. In 1942, Erwin Rommel became a field marshal . Erich von Manstein testified toNuremberg trials that out of a large number of military field marshals who took part in the 2nd World War, ten were dismissed, and three, being participants in the unsuccessful I/Ola conspiracy of 1944, were executed.

General Council of the German Economy

A centralized body created in July 1933 with the aim of militarizing the economy of the Third Reich. It included representatives of the country's leading monopolies: Krupp, Bosch, Schroeder, Siemens, Thyssen, Vogler and others. On May 29, 1933, Gustav Krupp , chairman of the German Reich Association of Industry , informed the chairman of the Reichsbank, Hjalmar Schacht, in writing,that representatives of all branches of industry will centrally collect funds in favor of the NSDAP to create a fund that "should be an expression of gratitude to the leader of the people." On June 14, 1934, Gustav Krupp, on behalf of the Association of Industry and Karl Kettgen, on behalf of the Association of German Employers, signed a document according to which every German entrepreneur was obliged four times a year to transfer to the fund at least 5 ppm (thousandths) of the amount of income received in the previous year.

Henlein, Conrad

X e n l e y n, (Nepіeіp), (1898-1945), German politician of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Born May 6, 1898 in Maffersdorf (now Vratislavice) in Bohemia, the son of a German and a Czech. He was a bank clerk, then a gymnastics teacher. In 1931 he headed the German Gymnastics Association in Czechoslovakia. On October 1, 1933, Henlein established a small political party - the German Patriotic Front - which demanded the autonomy of the Sudetenland within the framework of the Czechoslovak state. Henlein proposed the formation of a federal state similar to the system of Swiss cantons, which gave ethnic minorities independence without undermining national unity. However, Henlein's party was organized according to the principle of puffing.In October 1934, she held her first mass meeting, which was attended by 20 thousand people. In 1935, having already gathered a significant number of adherents, the German Patriotic Front changed its name and became the Sudeten German Party (SDP). Since 1936, the SDP has already functioned as a “fifth column” in Czechoslovakia, receiving powerful financial support through the Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle. For example, back in 1933 Henlein's party newspaper received 120,000 Czech crowns from Germany to pay off debts. In the same year, Rudolf / - essgranted one-time subsidies in the amount of 8 million kroons. Henlein himself received 12 thousand. Reichsmarks per month. Supporters of Henlein, temporarily hiding under the sign "Shport Abteilung" (the first letters coincided with the abbreviation SA), launched agitation for the independence of the Sudeten Germans with might and main.

In the 1935 elections, the SDP won 44 mandates or 60% of the seats from the German-speaking population of Czechoslovakia. On March 28, 1938, Hitler assured Henlein: “I will support you. Tomorrow you will become my viceroy (Zie zipsi aisb tog-dep teip Ziaifaiieg)”. A month later, Henlein put forward 8 so-called. "Carlsbad demands", in effect demanding complete autonomy for the Sudeten Germans. In May he traveled to London, where he swore that he had never received orders or even recommendations from Berlin.

After the Munich Agreement of 1938 , Henlein was appointed Reichskommissar for the Sudetenland. On May 1, 1939, he became Gauleiter and Reichsstathalter and headed the civil administration in Czechoslovakia. In May 1945, he was taken prisoner by the US 7th Army and committed suicide in a displaced persons camp on May 10, 1945.

Genocide

(from the Greek depos - clan, tribe and lat. saesio - I kill), the extermination of certain groups of the population for racial, national or religious reasons, one of the gravest crimes against humanity. The genocide is associated with Nazi reactionary theories that propagate racial and national hatred and intolerance, the domination of "higher" races over "lower" ones.

For the first time this term was used in the Third Reich in relation to the mass destruction of the Slavic and Jewish population, as well as many other peoples in the territories of the occupied countries of Europe during the 2nd World War. The genocide was considered part of Hitler's "blood, selection and severity" program aimed at achieving the purity of "Aryan-Nordic-Germanic blood."

See also Anti-Semitism', Concentration camps; "Death camps"; Holocaust; Euthanasia.

Henryki, Siegfried

(Nepgіsi), lieutenant general of the German army. Born November 11, 1889 in Zeist, Westphalia. In 1907 he joined the imperial army. After the end of the 1st World War, he retired and held various posts in the Prussian Ministry of Security and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1935 he returned to the army. June 1, 1939 he was awarded the rank of major general. In 1940 Henryki commanded the 12th Army Corps on the Western Front. In 1941-43, with the rank of lieutenant general, he was commander of the 43rd Army Corps and the 4th Army on the Eastern Front. In 1944-45 Henryki commanded the 1st Panzer Army; from March 1945 he commanded the western group of armies covering Berlin. April 28, 1945 Henryki led the 3rd Panzer Army. After the end of World War II, Henryki was convicted by the International Military Tribunal for war crimes and imprisoned.

George, Stefan

((Zeogde), (1868-1933), German poet, one of the prominent representatives of German symbolism, who had a profound influence on the cultural life of the Weimar Republic.Contemporaries called him "the embodiment of Roman culture on the Rhine soil" and "Napoleon at the court of the Muses." He was the first to declare poetry to be the only artistic form of literature. Born July 12, 1868 in Büdesheim in a wealthy family, which gave him the opportunity to make a number of trips abroad, thanks to which in the late 80s. he met the Parisian symbolists (Mallarmé, Verlaine); under their influence, George's aesthetic views were formed, aimed at overcoming naturalism: art should not serve the needs of society, it is necessary to "Gagi roig Gagi" - "art for art's sake". Gheorghe categorically declared: "In poetry ... everyone who is still seized by a manic desire to 'say' something does not deserve to be admitted even to the threshold of art." In poetry, “not the meaning, but the form” is important.

The isolation of the poet corresponded to such an aesthetic program. George's early collections of poetry did not go to bookstores, the circle of readers was narrow due to their specific form - facsimile handwritten editions, the rejection of capital letters and punctuation marks. From 1892 to 1919 George published 

magazine "Bletter fur di ku net", on the title page of which it was said that the magazine was intended "for a closed circle of readers, compiled at the invitation of permanent members." In the early collections "Hymns" (1890), "Pilgrimage" (1891), "Books of the Shepherds" (1895), "Year of the Soul" (1897), embodying the ideas of Nietzsche, he sang the mysterious forces of nature and exceptional heroes. In the collections "War" (1917) and "Three Songs" (1921) the influence of expressionism affected. Nietzschean in its origins and anti-democratic in essence, the poet's worldview during this period brought him close to the ideas of National Socialism. Once he predicted that a hero would soon appear in Germany, which will lead to the revival of the country, Europe and the whole world.This superman, according to Gheorghe, will be able to break the shackles of a rotten society, will bring order to chaos and sow the seeds of a new Reich. The prophetic ambitions of the poet, who did not notice reality, his mystical moods and the cult of self-sufficing heroism (the collection New Kingdom, 1928) gave rise to bourgeois reaction to use George's poems for their slogans; their meaning was interpreted as a call to the leader of the “Third Reich”, although George himself claimed that he was only trying to portray a “poet in the years of unrest” and rejected Nazism, seeing only a “crowd” in Hitler’s columns. He did not want to take part in the celebrations that were to take place on the occasion of his appointment as president of the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933. He emigrated to Switzerland, where he died on December 4, 1933, even forbidding himself to be buried in Germany. his mystical sentiments and the cult of self-sufficing heroism (the collection New Kingdom, 1928) gave rise to bourgeois reaction to use George's poems for their slogans; their meaning was interpreted as a call to the leader of the “Third Reich”, although George himself claimed that he was only trying to portray a “poet in the years of unrest” and rejected Nazism, seeing only a “crowd” in Hitler’s columns. He did not want to take part in the celebrations that were to take place on the occasion of his appointment as president of the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933. He emigrated to Switzerland, where he died on December 4, 1933, even forbidding himself to be buried in Germany. his mystical sentiments and the cult of self-sufficing heroism (the collection New Kingdom, 1928) gave rise to bourgeois reaction to use George's poems for their slogans; their meaning was interpreted as a call to the leader of the "Third Reich", although George himself claimed that he was only trying to portray a "poet in the years of unrest" and rejected Nazism, seeing only a "crowd" in Hitler's columns. He did not want to take part in the celebrations that were to take place on the occasion of his appointment as president of the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933. He emigrated to Switzerland, where he died on December 4, 1933, even forbidding himself to be buried in Germany. seeing only the "crowd" in Hitler's columns. He did not want to take part in the celebrations that were to take place on the occasion of his appointment as president of the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933. He emigrated to Switzerland, where he died on December 4, 1933, even forbidding himself to be buried in Germany. seeing only the "crowd" in Hitler's columns. He did not want to take part in the celebrations that were to take place on the occasion of his appointment as president of the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933. He emigrated to Switzerland, where he died on December 4, 1933, even forbidding himself to be buried in Germany.

Even on the eve of the 1st World War, literary followers, like-minded people and admirers of the poet's work formed the so-called. “Stefan George's Circle” is a cross between a bohemian literary salon and a spiritual and aesthetic order. It included many well-known cultural figures in Germany - poets, writers, university professors, artists - Friedrich Gundolf, Ludwig Klages, Karl Wolfskel, Alfred

Schuler and others. Calling themselves “cosmists”, the members of the circle widely promoted their own aesthetic concepts, adhered to a certain ritual of behavior, and even, in imitation of their leader, dressed in black clerical-cut hoodies. Many members of this circle became heralds of German fascism (Ludwig Klages , Ernst Bertram.) Alfred Schuler, one of the "cosmists" who tried to give the activity of the circle an anti-Semitic tinge, was perhaps the first in Germany to begin using the swastika as a symbol.When deprived of funds, Hitler arrived in Munich in early 1913, he repeatedly visited cafes and taverns where members of the “Stefan George circle” gathered, the atmosphere of which he liked. He attended the speeches of Alfred Schuler and was quite fascinated by their anti-Semitic orientation and vicious nationalism. It is very likely that it was then that he came up with the idea to use the swastika for his future movement.

Herbsstraise

(Herbzigeise - "Autumn Journey"), the code name for a large-scale feint as part of Operation Sea Lion.

In early August 1940, Hitler issued a directive to conduct air and sea combat operations against England. At the end of the same month, a whole series of distraction maneuvers was developed, including Operation Autumn Journey. Four huge passenger liners, including Europe and Bremen, together with ten transport and four auxiliary ships, left Norwegian territorial waters and headed for the coast of England in the Newcastle and Aberdeen area in order to distract the enemy’s attention from the main landing site of German troops. However after the Luftwaffe proved unable to counter the British Air Force, Operation Sea Lion was canceled.

Tereke, Günter

((Segeke), an official of the Reich Chancellery, an opponent of Nazism. Born October 6, 1893 in Grün. In 1932 Chancellor Franz von Papen appointed him commissioner for the supply of working equipment, a post he held after Hitler came to power. Due to the fact that Gereke did not recognize Nazism, he was arrested on trumped-up charges of speculation, bribery and embezzlement of public funds, but the corpus delicti could not be found, and Terek was released . Mr. Johannes Popitz and Field Marshal Erwin von Witzleben were among the participants in the conspiracy.At the end of World War II, the Terek was liberated by the Allies.

Göring, Hermann Wilhelm

(Soegipd), (1893-1945), “nazi number two”, the second military and economic leader of the Third Reich after Hitler.

Hermann Göring was born on January 12, 1893 in Rosenheim, Bavaria. His

Hermann Göring

his father, a personal friend of Bismarck, received in 1885 the post of governor-general of German South-West Africa. After graduating from the universities of Bonn and Heidelberg, having served his term as an officer in the Prussian army, Goering's father was completely imbued with the spirit of Prussianism. Early widowed in his first marriage, with five children in his arms, Dr. Goering married a second time to a young Tyrolean woman, whom he took to Haiti, where he was appointed to his second colonial post. When the time came for little Herman to be born, he sent her back to Bavaria.

Herman's childhood passed in fights and clashes. He was constantly expelled from all the schools where he had to study, for being aggressive and intractable. Seeing such inclinations of his son, his father decided to send him to Karlsruhe, to a cadet school, from where he was transferred to the Berlin military school.

Goering graduated from this school one of the first in terms of academic performance and in March 1912 was appointed to serve in the infantry regiment of Prince Wilhelm, stationed in Mulhouse, with the rank of second lieutenant. At this time, he had just turned 19 years old. The routine of garrison service disgusted the energetic young man, and he enthusiastically received the news of the outbreak of war. In October 1914 he secured his transfer to the military aviation. He flew first as an observer, then as a reconnaissance and bomber pilot. Finally, in the fall of 1915, he became a fighter pilot. He managed to shoot down one of the first heavy British bombers of the company "Handley Page", and then he himself was shot down by British fighters. Having been wounded in the thigh and leg, he soon returned to duty, and being recognized as one of the best fighter pilots in Germany, In May 1917 he received the post of commander of the 27th squadron. At the beginning of 1918, he had 21 victories in air battles, and already in May he was awarded the Order of Merit, which was considered the highest award in Germany. It was then that he was transferred to the famous squadron No. 1, better known as the “Richthofen Squadron” - by last name ~ 

Lies of its first commander, Baron Manfred von Richthofen.

On April 21, 1918, Captain Baron Richthofen, who had more than 80 victories in air battles to his credit, was shot down and killed. Lieutenant Reinhard, who took his place, died on July 3. His place was taken by Hermann Goering, leading the famous squadron. He took up this post on July 14, when the German troops began their withdrawal on the Marne.

The courage shown in battles did not soften the severity of the defeat for the pilots of squadron No. 1. Goering fell on hard times. In November, he had to return his aircraft and personnel to Germany. In total, the squadron scored 644 victories during the fighting; 62 pilots were listed as dead.

Goering demobilized at the end of 1919 with the rank of captain. On his chest were the Iron Cross I degree, the Order of the Lion with swords, the Order of Karl Friedrich, the Order of Hohenzollern III degree with swords and the Order of Merit. He will never forget this period of his life, nor his friends from the Richthofen Squadron. When in 1943 one of his comrades, a Jew named Luther, was arrested by the Hamburg Gestapo, Goering immediately intervened, secured his release and took him under his protection.

Demobilized, Goering was forced to look for a job. He could have continued to serve in the Reichswehr, but, being an opponent of the Weimar Republic, he did not want to serve in its army. To earn a living, he began to take part in demonstration flights in Denmark, and then in Sweden. On Sundays, he rode thrill-seekers in his little Fokker. So he earned a living for himself and his beloved woman, whom he took away from her husband and son and took him to Germany, to Munich, where their wedding took place.

Upon his return to Bavaria, the unemployed war hero barely made ends meet. He entered the first year of the University of Munich, not so much for the sake of studying political science and history, but in order to

Göring speaks at a Nazi rally in Vienna on October 2, 1932

to make his forced idleness look respectable. He lived in a pretty house on the outskirts of Munich on handouts that his wife Karin received from her family.

In the autumn of 1922, the Allies demanded that the German government extradite certain war criminals. Göring was infuriated by this demand, since his name also appeared on the lists submitted by France.

One Sunday in November, a demonstration was held at Königsplatz in the center of Munich, the participants of which protested against the demands of the allies. Goering was at this demonstration. Here, for the first time, he saw Hitler, who had already begun to be talked about in Bavaria. The crowd asked Hitler to speak. A week later, Goering attended one of the Nazi Party meetings, where Hitler gave a speech. The leitmotif of his speech was the struggle against the "dictat of Versailles". Since the Versailles Treaty of 1919 turned a brilliant officer Goering into a semi-poor fellow living off his wife, the speaker's thoughts found a lively response from him, and after the meeting he offered his services to Hitler.

For Hitler's party, still weak but rapidly gaining strength, Goering was a gift from heaven. His prestige as a war hero could be put to good use. A few days later he became a member of the Nazi Party, determined to put "body and soul" at the complete disposal of a man whom he had known for less than two weeks. The strike force of the party—its assault detachments (Summabieri-Iind- SA)—needed a leader. It was necessary to organize them well, discipline them, coordinate their actions and "turn them into an absolutely reliable combat unit capable of successfully carrying out Hitler's orders." In early January 1923, Hermann Göring assumed command of the Nazi shock forces.

Within a few months, Goering made a real army out of this large but poorly organized army with the help of the military, in particular with the assistance of Ernst Röhm, who at that time was acting commander of the seventh division, at the same time being the leader of the underground militia groups. But soon between Ryom and Goering, whose arrival Ryom met with displeasure, a dull rivalry arose. Goering sensed a dangerous rival in Ryoma. Nevertheless, thanks to their far from cloudless cooperation, the Nazi Party was able by the beginning of November 1923 to create a real army, dressed in gray-green tunics, with a military bearing, with cadres from among former military officers recruited from advertisements published by Goering in the Völkischer beo-bachter ".Brown shirts and the specific Hitler salute appeared much later.

With such forces at their disposal and placing great hopes on them, Hitler and his friends attempted a coup d'état in Munich on November 9, 1923 (see "Beer Putsch" 1923). Göring wasted no time in arresting several hostages, but after a brief firefight with the police at Feldherrnhale, the matter quickly ended. Goering received two bullets in the lower abdomen. He managed to hide in the house of the Jewish family Ballen in the first hours after the shootout. Soon, faithful people sent him to Austria, to Innsbruck, where he was able to begin treatment. In 20 years, for participation in the fate of Goering, the Ballen family will be spared from the destruction that threatened it.

The injuries and the forced inactivity that followed had a significant impact on Goering's temperament. He could not return to Germany, where he had already been issued

Hermann Goering inspects aircraft at a Polish airfield before the bombing of Warsaw

a warrant for his arrest. He had to spend four years, first in Austria and Italy, and then in Sweden. Due to the late start of treatment, the wounds healed poorly, bringing acute pain. I had to give injections of morphine, to which Goering became addicted, began to abuse it, which caused a mental breakdown. He became dangerous in communication, and he had to be placed in a psychiatric clinic in Langbrough, then in a similar one in Konradsberg, then again in Langbrough, from where he was discharged under the regular supervision of doctors under medical supervision. The forensic physician Karl Lundberg, who examined him at the Langbro clinic, said that Goering had a hysterical temperament, a split personality was observed, he had fits of tearful sentimentality, interspersed with fits of insane rage, during which he was able to go to extremes.

For members of his family, this was not surprising: they had long given him the most severe assessment. According to his cousin Herbert Goering, the family believed that Herman's character was dominated by vanity, fear of responsibility and complete promiscuity in means: "If necessary, Herman will go over the corpses."

Prolonged idleness, stay in psychiatric hospitals and hospitals left a deep imprint on Goering's appearance. He always had a tendency to be overweight, but now she has turned into obesity. At 32, he was unusually obese, filled with unhealthy fat, which he could never get rid of. Cut off from his Nazi friends, he to some extent escaped the influence of their environment. From now on, the methods of forceful influence began to disgust him, he came to the conclusion that Nazism should look for a different solution to its problems. Yesterday's predator has changed its appearance, the beast has become unrecognizable. Now Goering was preparing to fight using completely different, much more dangerous means. On his return to Germany in 1927 he became, like Hitler, a staunch supporter of the taking of power by political means. By "political" he meant, of course,

After an amnesty announced in the autumn of 1927, he returned to Munich, where he found all his friends. Goering tried to take over the assault troops again, but he felt that he could hope for something better: he was nominated as a candidate in the elections in 1928. Although the Nazis received only 12 seats in the Reichstag, Goering was among the elect. The atmosphere of the meetings of the Reichstag, not devoid of solemnity, impressed Goering, and the deputy's monthly salary of 600 marks significantly improved his financial situation. The origin of Goering, like his military rank, opened for him access to high Berlin society and, most importantly, to the circles of large industrialists, where he was soon regarded as Hitler's "plenipotentiary representative and closest ally." A visit to the Berlin salons alienated him even more from the thugs of Rem and from the assault squads. From that time on, his ostentatious passion for collecting works of art and pretentious patronage began.

Maneuvering between the storm troopers on the one hand and the political wing of the party headed by Gregor Strasser on the other, Goering, following his master Hitler, skillfully took advantage of the rivalry of those close to him, pushing them against each other in order to keep all the threads of leadership in his hands.

As a result of the September elections of 1930, Goering came to the Reichstag at the head of a group of Nazi deputies, numbering 107 people. In October 1931, he suffered a heavy loss: his wife Karin, who had suffered from tuberculosis for many years, died. With even greater zeal, he gave himself up to politics, devoting his life to someone who was now for him something like a deity - Hitler.

The presidential election of 1932 was approaching as the term of office of the aged President Paul von Hindenburgexpired in April. Hitler's candidacy was also considered, but one difficulty arose: Hitler did not have German citizenship. It was Goering who found the salutary solution: he proposed to organize the appointment of Hitler to the post of economic adviser to the Braunschweig representation in Berlin with the assistance of Goering's friends in the Braunschweig government, members of the Nazi Party - Chairman Küchental and Minister of the Interior Klagges. Such an appointment automatically gave Hitler German citizenship. And although Hitler still lost the April elections, the trick was quite successful: on February 24, Hitler received this appointment, on the 26 he took the oath, refusing to receive a salary, and on March 4 he resigned. It took him eight days to become a German.

Already after the July elections, Goering was rewarded for his efforts: he was elected chairman of the Reichstag and settled in a luxurious palace opposite the German parliament building.

Prince Wilhelm, son of the Kaiser, surrounded by Hitler and Goering in Potsdam, March 1933

Despite an endless series of elections (from 1925 to 1932 elections in Germany were organized more than 30 times), Goering retained the post of chairman of the Reichstag. In this post, he could significantly influence the course of events. On September 12, 1932, Göring submitted a vote of no confidence in von Papen's government, forcing him to resign before the draft decree to dissolve parliament was used. On January 22, 1933, Goering managed, a few hours before the fall of the Schleicher cabinet, to convince Oskar von Hindenburg, the son of the marshal-president, to convince his father that Hitler alone was capable of forming a new government.

Goering's activities played a decisive role in the Nazi conquest of power.

On the evening of January 30, when Hitler was in power for only a few hours, Goering made a radio address to the German people. He said that the shameful history of recent years is now and forever gone. “Today a new page in the history of Germany has been opened,” he declared, “and, starting from this page, freedom and honor will become the basis of a new statehood.”

As part of the new cabinet, Goering became, as it were, a counterbalance to von Papen. He was Reich Minister, Chairman of the Reichstag, Prussian Minister of the Interior and Air Commissar. He managed to get the Prussian police out of the control of the Reichskommissar (von Papen) and the Reichs Minister of the Interior Frick and resubordinate it directly to himself. From that moment on, Goering began to work on the creation in Germany of a well-organized political police, omnipotent and all-pervasive, consisting of people not burdened by the framework of morality - the Gestapo.He also initiated the creation in Germany of the first concentration camp near Oranienburg. After the Reichstag fire, Goering ordered the arrest of over 4,000 communists and social democrats and banned the communist press. On June 30, 1934, during the events of the Night of the Long Knives, Goering led the SS in Berlin. On March 1, 1935, Goering was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the German Air Force (see Luftwaffe) and energetically set about organizing the production of the latest military aircraft and training pilots. By this time he had become the most important figure in the Third Reich after Hitler. He owned a small but luxurious palace in Berlin and a country estate north of the capital, named after his first wife Karinhall.In 1935 Goering married for the second time to actress Emma Sonnemann.

Among Hitler's entourage, Goering was a controversial figure, being a kind of German version of Falstaff - a fat, charming adventurer and at the same time a sybarite who naively received sincere pleasure from the enormous power that fell on him. He said: "I joined the party because I was a revolutionary, not because of some ideological nonsense." However, this did not prevent him from remaining extremely careful and unconditionally fulfilling all the orders of the Fuhrer. He knew how to enjoy life, was an avid hunter, loved children and at the same time did not feel the slightest remorse in relation to the destruction of millions of people in concentration camps. In the eyes of the German people, Goering was a very popular person. Against the background of the caustic hysterical Goebbels, the dull and gloomy Rudolf Hess, the sinister Himmler, Goering favorably distinguished himself by his cheerful disposition, respectability, humor towards himself, lordly imposingness and innocence. He understood the advantage of the image he created and supported it in every possible way: “People want to love, and the Fuhrer was too often far from the masses. So they grabbed me.”

In 1936, Hitler instructed Goering to implement the "four-year plan" - a program for transferring the German economy to a war footing. On the eve of World War II, Goering, together with Himmler, carefully planned and carried out measures to remove Generals Blomberg and Fritsch from the highest military posts, which provided Hitler with absolute power over the army (see the Blomberg-Fritsch case). In 1938, with his direct participation, the enanschluss of Austria was carried out. Indulging Hitler, Goering, not being an anti-Semite at heart, turned a blind eye to the persecution and extermination of the Jews.

On August 30, 1939, Hitler appointed Goering chairman of the Imperial Defense Council. The next day, he proclaimed Göring as his successor in the event of his death. During the Blitzkrieg , Goering commanded aviation operations in Poland, France and later in the Soviet Union, for which he was awarded the rank of Reichsmarschall on June 19, 1940. However, the failed attempt to seize air supremacy during the Battle of England and the disruption of Operation Sea Lion caused Hitler a sharp discontent, and their relationship with Goering deteriorated markedly. His prestige in the hierarchy faded, while the influence of Gebbels, Himmler and Martin Bormannhas grown significantly. On the eve of the collapse of the Third Reich, having learned that Goering carried out secret negotiations with the enemy behind his back, Hitler ordered Goering to be arrested, stripped of all ranks and awards, and shot. Later, he denied his attempt at betrayal in every possible way, and upon receiving the news of the Fuhrer's suicide, he told his wife: “He is dead, Emma! Now I will never be able to explain to him that I was faithful to him to the end!”

Goering was arrested by members of the US 7th Army on May 9, 1945. His requests for a personal meeting with General Dwight Eisenhower were ignored. In 1946 Goering appeared before the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. He was found guilty on four counts, including war crimes and crimes against humanity, and sentenced to capital punishment. In a last letter to his wife, Goering expressed confidence in his posthumous rehabilitation: “In 50 or 60 years, statues of Hermann Goering will be erected all over Germany, and tiny busts will appear in every German house.”

On October 15, 1946, two hours before the hanging, he took poison, which in a strange way eluded the vigilant guards. By order of the court, his remains were cremated in one of the remaining ovens at Dachau.

Göring, Karin von Kantzow

(Ooegіpd), (1889-1931), the first wife of Hermann Goering. Born in the family of a colonel in the Swedish army. Goering met her when, after the 1st World War, he earned a living by participating in demonstration flights in Sweden and Denmark. Karin von Kantsow was married and had an eight-year-old son. She suffered severely from epilepsy. She dissolved her first marriage and married an indigent German pilot. She influenced her husband's life in various ways, directly while she was alive and indirectly after her death. Her family, horrified by the fact that Goering was using drugs, for a long time did not want to have any relationship with him. After a long illness, Karin von Kantzow died of tuberculosis on October 17, 1931. Goering, who loved his wife very much, was crushed. He buried her at his new luxurious estate in Schorfheide, north of Berlin,Carinhall in her honor.

Goering, Emma Sonneman

(boeggpd), (1893-1973), second wife of Hermann Göring. In her youth, a provincial actress. Goering married her on April 10, 1935. Since the Fuhrer was unmarried, Frau Goering often had to take on social issues among the Nazi elite. In 1948, two years after her husband's suicide, Frau Göring appeared in court on charges of belonging to Nazism. She was banned from performing on stage for five years. In recent years, she lived in seclusion in a small apartment in Munich with her only daughter, Edda. Emma Sonneman died June 8, 1973.

"Oat flakes"

("Negsies"), the code name for the operation of the landing of German paratroopers on Malta in the spring of 1942. This operation was postponed when large forces of the British Navy approached the island on June 16, 1942 and a British air force base was established on the island. English planes completely paralyzed the actions of the Luftwaffe and sank many German transport ships that were going to the aid of General Erwin Rommel in the North. Africa.

German-SS

(OegtapivsGie-88), units of the SS troops, staffed by ethnic Germans in Norway and Denmark.

German American Union

(Segtap-Ategisap Vipsi), a pro-Nazi organization in the United States, created in the early years of the Third Reich. Among the large number of American Nazi groups that arose in the 1930s, the largest was the Friends of the New Germany, which in 1935 became the German-American Union. In the eye with Fritz Kuhn, this union organized camps for its members and children in New Jersey and held mass rallies in Madison Square Garden in New York. Proud of his connections with leading figures in the Third Reich, Kuhn passed on to his friends in Germany a somewhat exaggerated picture of his organization's power and influence in the United States. The Steuben Society, a conservative German-American organization, warned Hitler that the Americans were angry at the activities of the German-American Bund in their country. The Fuhrer had conflicting feelings towards the union: on the one hand, the union maintained the racial bonds that he himself so vehemently preached, but on the other hand, he was worried about the impact on American public opinion of the union's activities. Officially, Hitler disassociated himself from the German-American Confederation after protests received from the American embassy in Berlin. The Fuhrer denied that this alliance owed its existence to Germany and promised to "throw into the North Sea any official who sends Nazi propaganda to the United States." The activity of the union was limited, and it dissolved itself during the 2nd World War. which were received from the American embassy in Berlin. The Fuhrer denied that this alliance owed its existence to Germany and promised to "throw into the North Sea any official who sends Nazi propaganda to the United States." The activity of the union was limited, and it dissolved itself during the 2nd World War. which were received from the American embassy in Berlin. The Fuhrer denied that this alliance owed its existence to Germany and promised to "throw into the North Sea any official who sends Nazi propaganda to the United States." The activity of the union was limited, and it dissolved itself during the 2nd World War.

German-Italian Treaty 1939

See Steel Pact.

German labor front

(Oeissbe AgleiièTgopі; OAR), GTF, created on the initiative of Hitler in May 1933, a nationwide organization that replaced the trade unions of the Weimar Republic. It was officially established on May 10, 1933. Robert Ley, head of the organizational department of the NSDAP, was appointed chairman of the GTF in the rank of Reichsleiter .

On March 24, 1933, the Reichstag passed a law declaring May 1 "National Labor Day". At the celebrations on the occasion of this holiday, held at the Tempelhof airfield, Hitler addressed an audience of millions, consisting of representatives of working people from all regions of Germany. “From now on,” he said, “May 1, which until now symbolized the class struggle, is turning into a symbol of national unity.” Hitler assured that the new Germany would no longer know social conflicts, but “become one family, working with all its might for the realization of common tasks. It will again become a powerful and respected state by the peoples.”

The day after these celebrations, SA troops occupied the premises of the trade unions and confiscated all their property, including membership dues. The editorial offices of trade union newspapers and magazines were closed, hundreds of trade unionists were arrested, who were immediately replaced by commissars from the Nazi trade unions. All trade union

Labor Day in the Lustgarten, Berlin, May 1, 1936

Hans Retzlaf. “Workers go to work across the dunes”, 1941

nye organizations were required to make a declaration of full and unconditional obedience to the directives of the NSDAP. The government issued a law that abolished the right to conclude tariff agreements, won back in the period of the empire. Now the labor commissars determined “the conditions concerning the signing of labor relations”. Workers and employees were obliged to follow the orders of the "enterprise commander", who, as a rule, was its owner. The workers' councils were abolished, the right to strike and to conclude collective agreements were abolished. The illusion of “smoothing out” class and estate differences was created. Later, on January 16, 1934, the so-called. Labor Charter (entered into force on May 1, 1934), which determined the new order of labor relations.

The TTF numbered 23 million in 1938 and 25 million in 1942, with an apparatus of 40,000 functionaries. It included both the owners of various enterprises and their staff. All production facilities were declared the property of GTF. On September 13, 1935, Dr. Lay declared: “Our [Nazi] administration promises to be more efficient than it was under the unions. Labor collectives have the right to distribute financial assistance, use their own funds for vocational training, housing construction, and wage increases. Auxiliary organizations such as Strength in Joy,arrange sporting events, free theatrical performances, provide recreation and vacation travel for workers with an impeccable party reputation. The Union “Beauty of Labor” is engaged in the improvement of working conditions at plants and factories”.

Dr. Goebbels' Ministry of Propaganda constantly emphasized the advantage of the GTF over the former trade unions, silent about the fact that the main labor problems and conflicts had not been resolved during the entire period of the existence of the Third Reich.

Guernica

A small Basque town in northern Spain. On April 26, 1937, Guernica was subjected to many hours of devastating bombardment by German aircraft, as a result of which 1,600 civilians were killed. The barbaric destruction of the ancient city, the center of Basque culture, whose population at that time was only about 7,000 people, caused indignation throughout the world. This event was dedicated to the painting by Pablo Picasso "Guernica" (1937).

"Gerren Club"

(“NergepkІuL” - “Club of the Masters”), a social club in Berlin, whose members saw themselves as an association of the national German elite. Among its founders and members

Rudolf Hess

kov was chancellor and vice-chancellor in the government of Hitler, Franz von Papen.

Hess, Rudolf

(Nezz), (1894-1987), one of the leaders of Nazi Germany, Deputy Fuhrer for the party, Nazi "number three". Born April 26, 1894 in Alexandria, Egypt, in the family of a German merchant. During World War I, Hess served on the Western Front as a platoon commander in the same regiment as Hitler. Wounded near Verdun. At the end of the war he went to serve in aviation. In 1919 he became a member of the Thule Society. Then he joined one of the units of the "Volunteer Corps" under the command of General Franz von Epp. In 1920 Hess became a member of the NSDAP. He studied at the University of Munich with Professor Karl Haushofer, whose geopolitical theories made a deep impression on him. After participating in the failed "Beer Putsch" 1923 Hessfled to Austria. Returning to Germany, he was sentenced to seven months in prison, which he served with Hitler in the Landsberg prison, where Hitler dictated his book “Mein Kampf” to him. Hess became Reich Minister without portfolio on April 21, 1933. On February 4, 1938, after the reorganization of the military and political leadership by Hitler, Hess became a member of the so-called Secret Cabinet.On August 30, 1939 he became a member of the Defense Executive Board. Simultaneously, he was appointed as Hitler's successor after Göring. By special decree, he was entrusted with control over all activities of the Nazi government and other state bodies. Not a single order of the government, not a single law of the Reich was valid until they were signed by Hitler or Hess. Hess was entrusted with making decisions on behalf of the Führer, he was declared "the absolute representative of the Führer", and his office - "the office of the Führer himself."

Rudolf Hess in Spandau Prison

Hess's devotion to the Fuhrer, who raised him from the lowest to the highest positions in the Reich, was absolute. Immersed in himself, deprived of high intelligence and demagogic talent, Hess knew only unconditional faith in his Fuhrer. "Hitler," he said, "is simply the personification of pure reason." In 1934, Hess said: “We are proud to see that only one person remains beyond all criticism. Each of us feels and understands that Hitler is always right and that he will always be right.” At one of the Nuremberg party congresses, Hess, as usual anticipating Hitler's speech, said: "I have been granted many years to live and work next to the greatest son of the nation, whom our people must carry through a thousand years of their history."

On May 10, 1941, Hess made an amazing flight to Scotland (see Hess's flight).On behalf of Hitler, he invited Great Britain to make peace and take part in the campaign against the USSR. In Britain, Hess was interned as a prisoner of war. In 1946 he appeared before the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. During the trial, he repeatedly feigned memory loss, constantly asking the judges again and repeating: “I don’t remember anything.” Posing as a mentally ill person, Hess defiantly tried to commit suicide. At the request of the court, the doctors carefully examined the defendant and concluded that his actions were of a “consciously-intentional simulative nature”. After that, he was exhausted, broken, his deep-set eyes staring blankly into space. The court sentenced Hess to life imprisonment in the Spandau prison in Berlin , where he died.

Hess, flight

On May 10, 1941, the Deputy Fuhrer for the party Rudolf / - Ess made a secret flight to Scotland from the Nazi leadership in order to propose to the British government to make peace and jointly participate in the war against the USSR. Hess, who for many years was the shadow of the Fuhrer, but by this period felt that Hitler's attention to his person was gradually weakening, for a long time hatched plans for some kind of action that could return him to lost positions. Influenced, among other things, by the geopolitical theories of his university lecturer Karl Haushofer, he considered it a tragedy for the Germans and the British—“Aryan blood brothers”—to wage war against each other. Having met in 1936 during the Olympic Games with a member of the royal family, Lord Hamilton,Hess intended through him to be accepted into the English Parliament in order to present his proposals there.

After careful preparation, having previously made several training flights, on May 10, 1941, Hess took off from the airfield in Augsburg in an unarmed aircraft with a one-way supply of fuel. Hess was dressed in the uniform of a Luftwaffe lieutenant,had a map with a planned route. He flew the plane brilliantly. Hess intended to land the plane near the estate of Hamilton, however, having flown up and not finding a suitable place, he jumped out with a parachute and surrendered to local farmers. Delivered to a Glasgow hospital, he at first introduced himself with a false name, but then admitted that he was Rudolf Hess. He was rather discouraged by the fact that for a long time the British officials could not understand why this flight had been made and at first refused to talk to him. One of the Foreign Office officials agreed to listen to Hess' proposals. Hess declared on behalf of Hitler that Germany would like to conclude a peace treaty with Great Britain, stop hostilities and direct joint efforts to fight Bolshevik Russia; Great Britain was given complete freedom of action within the British Empire; colonies, which Germany lost under the termsTreaty of Versailles 1919, must be returned to her; British troops were to be withdrawn from Iraq; the British government must make peace with Mussolini. At the same time, Hess declared that since the Fuhrer did not intend to negotiate with Winston Churchill, it would be preferable if Churchill resigned.

When they found out about Hess's flight in Germany, the reaction was incredible. Hitler ordered Propaganda Minister Goebbels to declare Hess insane to the whole world. The press release contained the following characteristics: “Apparently, party member Hess lived in a world of hallucinations, as a result of which he imagined that he was able to find an understanding between England and Germany ... The National Socialist Party believes that he fell victim to insanity. And thus his act has no effect on the continuation of the war to which Germany was forced.”

Churchill, who was sure that Hess had come to England of his own free will and initiative and did not have any authority, ordered that he be treated with dignity. Hess was sent to London, to the Tower, where he stayed as a high-ranking internee until October 6, 1945. Then he was transferred to a prison in Nuremberg.

Gestapo

(German Cesiaro, abbreviated from Sejeite Ziaaizroiiigei), the secret state police of the Third Reich, designed to fight dissidents, dissatisfied and opponents of the Nazi regime, which became a symbol of Nazi terror.

On April 26, 1933, Goering published a special decree that created a secret state police - Geheime Staatspolizei - subordinate to the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, in other words, personally subordinate to Goering. On the same day, Rudolf Diels was appointed deputy head of this police force.

On June 22, a special instruction instructed all officials to monitor the nature of the statements of civil servants and report any criticism to the ministry. On June 30, a similar order introduced the practice of denunciation among workers and employees.

In June 1936, Heinrich Himmler was appointed imperial leader of the Gestapo. By decree of June 17, 1936, the Gestapo was given legal status.

On February 10, 1936, Goering, as Prime Minister of Prussia, signed the text of the decree, which was later called the basic law of the Gestapo. It stated that the Gestapo was entrusted with investigating the activities of all forces hostile to the state throughout the territory; it also stated that the orders and cases of the Gestapo could not be considered by the administrative courts. Article 1 of this document read: “The Gestapo is entrusted with the task of exposing and fighting against all trends dangerous to the state, collecting and using the results of investigations, informing the government about them, keeping the authorities informed of the most important cases for them and giving them recommendations for action.”

One of the paragraphs of the decree was adopted at the prompting of Reinhard Heydrich, who hoped to extract significant benefits for himself. It noted that the Gestapo "runs the concentration camps." Himmler took steps to limit its use

nie. The management of the camps was handed over and carried out to the very end by the special service of the SS.

After the creation on September 27, 1939 of the Main Directorate of Reich Security (RSHA), the Gestapo became part of it as the Fourth Directorate. From that moment until the end of the Third Reich, the Gestapo was headed by Heinrich Müller. Its central service consisted of 1,500 employees. The internal structure of the Gestapo consisted of five departments:

IV A - the fight against the opponents of Nazism: communists, Marxists, liberals and other opposition movements. Implemented anti-sabotage and general security measures. Numbered up to six sectors (subdivisions).

IV B - supervision of the political activities of the Catholic and Protestant churches, religious sects, Jews, Freemasons and opposition movements among the youth. Consisted of five subdivisions. Sector IV B 4, headed by Adolf Eichmann, was engaged in the implementation of the "Final Solution".

IV C - file cabinet, printing, dossier compilation. He was also involved in preventive arrests and surveillance.

IV E - cases of the occupied territories; the fight against the resistance movement in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the General Government (Poland); questions of foreign workers in Germany. Subsection IV O 3 was in charge of national minorities: Ukrainians, Russians, Caucasian emigrants. Subsection IV O 4 dealt with the western territories: Holland, Belgium, France, headed by Karl Heinz Hoffmann, who prepared the secret order “Darkness and Fog” signed by Hitler, in pursuance of which thousands of deportees disappeared.

IV E - counterintelligence, the fight against espionage. It consisted of six subdivisions: IV E 1 - general issues of counterintelligence and counterintelligence at the industrial enterprises of the Reich; IV E 2 - general economic issues. The remaining four subdivisions dealt with the countries of the West, North, South and East.

After the Gestapo was reorganized in 1943 as the 4th Directorate of the RSHA, it received the name "Detection and fight against the enemy." The scope of activity of department IV A remained practically unchanged. The first sector of this department was engaged in the fight against communist ideas and hostile propaganda, the second - the fight against saboteurs, the third - the fight against other opposition, not related to Marxism, political currents.

Department IV D was created, consisting of two sectors: the border police and the passport office.

In the fight against opponents of the Nazi regime and dissidents, the Gestapo widely used torture and abuse of those arrested. Every year the number of hostages being shot increased. Throughout Germany and in the territories occupied by it, a wide network of agents was created from people who managed to break with the help of physical and psychological pressure, various forms of blackmail and threats. They tried to recruit agents primarily from the environment where social life was concentrated. This concerned, first of all, the attendants of cafes, restaurants, hotels, shops.

After the defeat of the Third Reich by law No. 2 of the Control Council in Germany, the Gestapo in 1945 was abolished and outlawed. The International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in 1946 recognized the Gestapo as a criminal organization. Most of its main organizers and leaders were sentenced to death and various terms of imprisonment.

"Geheime Feldpolizei"

(Sebeite Eeibroiiigei), secret gendarmerie, a special police department within the Abwehr. In 1942, its functions were transferred to the SD.

“Geheime State Police”

См. Gestapo.

'Te high mer cabinetsrat'

(Sebeiteg Kalipeiiizgai) See "Secret Cabinet".

Geshwader

(Cessj / acieg), an operational unit of the Luftwaffe (squadron). Many squadrons were named after the national heroes of Germany: “Hindenburg”, “Richthofen”, “Immelmann”, “Horst Bessel”, etc.

Goerdeler, Carl Friedrich

(Coercier), (1884-1945), German politician. Born July 31, 1884 in Schneidemühl (now Pila, Poland). During the years of the Weimar Republic, he joined the reactionary German National Party. In 1920-30 he was the 2nd Mayor of Königsberg, in 1930-37 he was Mayor of Leipzig. In 1931-32 he was also Reich Commissioner for Prices; again held this post in 1934-35 in the government of Hitler. Since the end of the 30s. went into opposition, being dissatisfied with Hitler's break with the Western powers. During the 2nd World War, in the face of heavy German defeats on the Soviet-German front, he led the July conspiracy of 1944in order to save Germany at the cost of removing the Nazi elite led by Hitler from power, was on the extreme right wing of the conspirators. He was predicted for the post of chancellor of the provisional government. After the failure of the assassination attempt on Hitler on July 20, 1944, he was arrested and executed in the Plötzensee prison on February 2, 1945.

Gize, Teresa

(Sieze), German theater actress. Born in 1898. Widespread fame brought her the role of mother Courage in the play by Bertolt Brecht. From 1926 she played on the stage of the Munich “Kammerspiel”. Reviews for her roles were laudatory. Even before Hitler came to power , the Völkischer Beobachter wrote: “At last we managed to see a brilliant German woman on the Jewish stage.” However, after her performances in the cabaret "Pfeffermühle", where she sang satirical songs that ridiculed the Nazi regime, the reaction to the work of the actress changed dramatically. She had to emigrate to Switzerland, where she continued her performances on the stages of Zurich. After the war, Giese returned to Germany.

Gisevius, Hans Bernd

(Sizeviiz), (1904-1974), German diplomat and writer. Born July 14, 1904 in Arnsberg. Entering the diplomatic service with the rise of the Nazis to power in 1933, Gisevius held various posts in the Foreign Office. He was involved in several plots against Hitler. From 1940 to 1944, Gisevius was Vice Consul in Zurich, and in this capacity he met frequently with Allen Dulles, a representative of the American intelligence agencies. After the failure of the July Plot of 1944 , Gisevius remained in Switzerland. He was one of the main witnesses for the prosecution at the Nuremberg trials. After the war, he spent several years in the United States and in West Berlin, but then returned to Switzerland, where he settled. Died in West Germany on February 23, 1974.

In his memoirs, Gisevius describes the leading figures of the Third Reich and attempts to eliminate Hitler. He was frightened by the immorality of the Nazi regime, especially by the events of "Kristallnacht"—Jewish pogroms. He notes that the word “pogrom” is completely inadequate to describe what happened in Germany: “Not a single Jewish home was left untouched, not a single Jewish business was left unlooted, not a single synagogue was left unset on fire.” Gisevius reported that anyone who lived through those terrible hours would never forget them: “The maddened mob poured out its emotions on defenseless people... The intimidated middle class stared at the Nazi monster like a rabbit at a boa constrictor.” According to Gisevius, although the orders for the pogroms came from Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich,

"Personally, the Fuhrer was responsible for these terrible and revealing sinister excesses."

Hilferding, Rudolf

(HіІІegsіpd), (1877-1941), one of the leaders of the Austrian and German social democracy, theorist of the so-called. Austro-Marxism. Born August 10, 1877 in Vienna in the family of a wealthy businessman. As a medical student, he joined the Austrian Social Democratic Party. After graduating from university, he moved to Berlin, where he contributed to the Neue Zeit (Meie 2eii), the theoretical organ of the German Social Democracy, writing articles on Marxist economic theory. In 1907-15 he was the editor of the central organ of the German Social Democratic Party Vorverts (VogvagF). In his main work Finance Capital (1910), Hilferding made one of the first attempts to give a scientific explanation for the new phenomena of capitalism associated with its entry into the stage of imperialism. In it, Hilferding summarized a great deal of theoretical material on the emergence and activities of joint-stock companies, the formation of fictitious capital, and described the stock exchange; considered the process of subordination of small capitals to large ones; defended the thesis about the maturity of capitalism to replace it with socialism.

In 1924, Hilferding was elected to the Reichstag, where he sharply criticized the growing Nazi movement. Twice he served as Minister of Finance: in 1923 in the Stresemann government and in 1928-29 in the Müller government.

After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Hilferding was forced to leave Germany: first he went to Denmark, then to Switzerland and finally to France. The Vishy government issued Hilferdingagestalo. He died in a Paris prison on February 10, 1941.

Himmler, Heinrich

(Hittieg), (1900-1945), one of the main political and military activities

Henry Henmler

Teley of Nazi Germany, Reichsführer SS. Born October 7, 1900 in Munich in the family of a Bavarian teacher. He was going to become a professional officer, but after graduating from a military school he did not get to the front, because by this time the 1st World War had already ended. Himmler joined one of the many units of the Volunteer Corps. Then he studied at the Faculty of Agriculture of the Technical Institute in Munich, where he became close to the nationalist-minded veterans of the 1st World War. During the "Beer putsch" in 1923 , Himmler was the standard-bearer, carried the so-called. "battle flag of the Reich". At one time he was the secretary of Gregor Strasserleader of the socialist wing of the Nazi Party. In August 1925, Himmler joined the NSDAP restored by Hitler and was appointed Gauleiter of Bavaria. In 1928, Himmler married the daughter of a Prussian landowner, Margaret Boden, who was seven years older than him.

On January 6, 1929, by order of Hitler, Himmler became the ReichsführerSS. Creating his “black order”, Himmler sought to make it a successor to the medieval traditions of chivalry and give it the appropriate attributes: silver rings with the image of a skull, honorary swords, runic symbols, etc. He developed a mystical ritual for joining the SS, conferring successive titles, and even a recommendation to SS members to marry “exemplary wives.” According to the instructions, they had to have Nordic facial features, know history well, speak foreign languages, be able to ride a horse, swim, drive a car, shoot a pistol. In addition, they were required to exemplary housekeeping and cooking skills.

Himmler and Hitler receive the parade of the SS Life Standard "Adolf Hitler" on the Führer's fiftieth birthday, April 20, 1939

wives and choose new ones in accordance with the standard mentioned. Both Hitler and Himmler were unanimous that after the war legalized bigamy should be introduced to stimulate the birth rate.

Himmler said: “If the good blood that underlies our people is not multiplied, then we will not be able to establish domination over the world ... A people that has an average of four sons in a family can dare to go to war, because if two will die, then the remaining two will continue their race. Leaders who have one or two sons will hesitate in making any decision. We cannot go for this.”

From 1931, Himmler was engaged in the creation of his own secret service - the SD , at the head of which he put Reinhard Heydrich. In 1933 Himmler was appointed police chief of Munich. On Hitler's orders, he created the first concentration camp at Dachau. On April 20, 1934, Goering appointed Himmler chief of the Prussian Gestapo. On June 17, 1936, Hitler signed a decree appointing Himmler supreme leader of all German police services. All police services, both paramilitary and civilian, came under his control. Under the leadership of Himmler, SS troops were also created.

From 1943, Himmler became instead of Frick the Imperial Minister of the Interior, and after the failure of the July Plot of 1944 , the commander of the Reserve Army. Starting from the summer of 1943, in view of the obvious imminent defeat of Germany, Himmler, through his proxies, began to establish contacts with representatives of Western intelligence agencies in order to conclude a separate peace. Hitler, who learned about this, on the eve of the collapse of the Third Reich, expelled Himmler from the NSDAP as a traitor and deprived him of all ranks and positions. Leaving the Reich Chancellery, Himmler headed for the Danish border, where he intended to take refuge, lost in a crowd of refugees, but on May 21, 1945 he was arrested by the British military authorities.

Heinrich Himmler with his wife

and committed suicide by taking poison.

Here is one of the characteristic descriptions of Himmler's appearance:

“He gave the impression of an intelligent elementary school teacher ... From under a low forehead, gray-blue eyes looked through the gleaming glasses of pince-nez. A trimmed mustache under a straight, regular nose stood out as a dark line on a sickly pale face. The lips are bloodless and very thin... The skin on the neck is loose and wrinkled. A barely perceptible ironic and contemptuous smile sometimes appeared at the corners of the mouth, revealing dazzling white teeth, which enlivened for a moment a motionless face. The hands are thin, white, almost girlish, with clearly visible blue veins.

Himmler-Kersten treaty

A document signed on March 12, 1945 by Himmler and his personal physician, Dr. Felix Kersten , regarding the fate of concentration camp prisoners.

Treaty in the name of humanity

It is hereby decided:

1. That the concentration camps will not be blown up.

2. When allied troops approach, white flags will be flown.

3. There will be no further extermination of the Jews; Jews will be treated like other prisoners.

4. Sweden is allowed to send food parcels to imprisoned Jews.

Signed: Himmler Kersten.

Hindenburg, Oscar

(Nipsiiepbigd), (1883-1960), son and assistant in military affairs to President Paul von Hindenburg.Born January 31, 1883 in Königsberg. Deprived of political ambitions, Hindenburg played at first an inconspicuous role in his father's circle. But as the Nazi movement grew in Germany, he became more and more involved in behind-the-scenes political games, the purpose of which was to transfer power to the Nazis. After Oscar became involved in a scandal over the so-called. "Eastern subsidies" - an attempt to evade taxes for the Hindenburg family estate in Neudeck, Hitler began to blackmail him with the fact that if he, Hitler, was not appointed Chancellor of Germany, this story would be made public and the question of confidence in the president would arise. Oskar was forced to submit to blackmail and began to put pressure on his father to bring Hitler into the government. Shortly after Hitler was appointed Chancellor, about 5,000

After the death of President Hindenburg on August 2, 1934, Hitler scheduled a plebiscite for August 19 on the transfer of presidential duties to the Chancellor. On the eve of the vote, Oskar Hindenburg addressed the nation on the radio:

“The last Reich President and Field Marshal, having concluded an agreement with Adolf Hitler on January 30 last year and confirmed this at our sacred hour in the Garrisonkirche in Potsdam on March 21, constantly supported Adolf Hitler and approved all the main decisions of his cabinet ... My father saw in Adolf Hitler his immediate successor as head of the German state. I, acting in accordance with the wishes of my father, call on all German men and women to vote for the transfer of my father's post to the Fuhrer and Chancellor.

The plebiscite that took place approved the appointment of Hitler to the presidency with 90% of the votes.

Oskar von Hindenburg died on February 12, 1960 in Bad Harzburg at the age of 77.

Hindenburg, Paul von

.

military and statesman, field marshal general (1914). Born October 2, 1847 in the family of a Prussian officer in Poznan. Graduated from the cadet corps. Member of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. During the 1st World War, from the end of August 1914, Hindenburg commanded the 8th German Army in East. Prussia, and since November - by the troops of the entire Eastern Front. From August 1916, he became chief of the General Staff, in fact, commander in chief, receiving the status of a national hero and the nickname “Iron Hindenburg”. After the death on February 28, 1925 of the first president of the Weimar Republic , Friedrich Ebert,Hindenburg, with the support of a bloc of right-wing parties, agreed to run for president. April 26, 1925, having received 14.6 million votes, Hindenburg was elected president. Officially declaring that he intended to strictly adhere to the Weimar constitution and the terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919, he nevertheless became supportive of

President Hindenburg and his Chancellor

Paul von Hindenburg, Hitler and Goering at the memorial in honor of the Battle of Tannenberg. August 1933

live military-monarchist and Nazi organizations. Hindenburg was the honorary chairman of the Steel Helmet military organization. Hindenburg's policy contributed to the revival of the German military potential and the restoration of Germany's military power. On April 10, 1932, with the help of right-wing Social Democratic leaders, he was re-elected president, receiving 53% of the votes (19,359,650; Hitler - 13,418,011; Telman - 3,706,655 votes). On May 30, 1932, Hindenburg removed Chancellor Heinrich Brüning from power and replaced him with Franz von Palen, who represented the interests of the Reichswehr and heavy industry magnates. After the elections to the Reichstag in July and November 1932, the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germanyreceived widespread support and became the strongest party in the country, Hindenburg faced the question of appointing a coalition government, which would include Hitler and the Nazis. On January 30, 1933, Hindenburg handed over power to the Nazis, instructing Hitler to form a government. From this point on, Hindenburg's political activity and influence began to decline.

After the bloody events of the Night of the Long Knives, Hindenburg signed a congratulatory telegram to Hitler, prepared by the Fuhrer himself: my deep appreciation and sincere gratitude. Please accept the assurances of my best feelings.”

Von Hindenburg died on August 2, 1934 at his family estate in Neudeck.

On August 12, that is, a week and a half after the marshal's death, his will was published. No one had any doubts that the document was falsified; several phrases indicated that they were clearly written under the dictation of Hitler, since they exactly coincided with the views of the Fuhrer. The testament ended with the following words: “My Chancellor Adolf Hitler and his movement enabled the German people to take a historic decisive step towards internal unity, rising above all class divisions and differences in social conditions. I leave my German people with the firm hope that my aspirations, which were formed in 1919 and gradually matured until January 30, 1933, will develop towards the full and final fulfillment of the historical mission of our people.

Firmly believing in the future of our country, I can safely close my eyes."

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